George Kiefer and the Necropolis of Ancon

Chicago's Field Museum plans rare, brief exhibit of mummies from Egypt, Peru - chicagotribune.com

2012-01-15T20:57:00.000-08:00

Chicago's Field Museum plans rare, brief exhibit of mummies from Egypt, Peru - chicagotribune.com
"The Field Museum plans a rare display of mummies from its own collection, many of which haven't been seen by the public since the World's Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893...The museum obtained many of the mummies at the exposition in 1893, but they hadn't been studied thoroughly until last year because of fears of damage." The exhibit runs Feb 17 through April 22, and will feature mummies from both Egypt and Peru.

The American Legation at Lima

2012-01-12T18:47:00.000-08:00

From the book by Marie Robinson Wright. 1908. The old and the new Peru: a story of the ancientinheritance and the modern growth and enterprise of a great nation. Philadelphia: George Barrie &Sons. 456 pp.
I think I have identified this building apparently known as the "Quinta Heeren". The website below explains that the building was built in 1880, so this was probably not the legation at the time of the War of the Pacific. I would like to know if anyone knows where the legation was located in 1880-1881. If you have this information, please comment. Here is the website with information on the Quinta Heeren. Apparently the building still stands, but is mostly empty.
Link to Quinta Heeren

Chorrillos, Devastated City in the War of the Pacific

2011-10-30T23:09:00.000-07:00

Photos: A tour of Chorrillos, Lima's next big neighborhood:

"Home to a notable fishing pier and once the playground for Lima's 19th century aristocracy, it became a devastated zone after the War of the Pacific and subsequently by the earthquake of 1940."

Peru's Guano Reserves

2011-10-30T23:02:00.000-07:00

Guano is Good as Gold | Multimedia, photography, video showcase of The Palm Beach Post:
On twenty two islands along the Peruvian coast, guanays, boobies and pelicans roost. Their excrement, known as guano, fueled an economic boom in the 19th century. Ships carried the guano across the ocean on their return voyages to England and France.

Swedish City to Return Paracas Textiles to Peru

2011-08-30T22:02:00.000-07:00

Peruvian Times August 16, 2011
"The mayor of the Swedish city of Gothenburg, Anneli Hulthen, has said the town will return some 100 items from the Paracas culture to Peru, daily La Republica reported. The mayor sent an official letter to Peru recognizing the country as the owners of Paracas textiles that were smuggled out of Peru in 1931 and 1939, and which are being held at the World Culture Museum in Gothenburg."

Susana Baca Chosen as Cultural Minister in Peru

2011-08-30T21:05:00.000-07:00

Wall Street Journal, August 23, 2011

"As minister, Ms. Baca said she would also oversee the South American country’s ongoing efforts to win back pre-Columbian Peruvian artifacts that have found their way into collections around the world. Those include relics from Machu Picchu that Yale University recently agreed to return; 2,000-year-old funeral bundles in a museum in Gothenburg, Sweden, and other artifacts in Argentina and elsewhere."

A world-famous vocalist, Susana Baca has released seven albums on the Luaka Bop label, including Lamento Negro, "which won a Latin Grammy Award in 2002 for best world album."

Along the Missouri River

2009-01-12T21:33:00.000-08:00

In 1880 this home was built in Boonville, Missouri. It sits on the bluff on High Street just a block or two from the downtown shops and the bridge over the Missouri River to New Franklin. This house would have stood there when, after the disastrous trip to Peru, Paul Boyton floated the Missouri River from Montana all the way to St. Louis in a rubber suit, arriving at the Mississippi in November. George was still in Peru.

Augusto Berns found Machu Picchu before Hiram Bingham

2008-06-15T06:59:00.000-07:00

AFP: German adventurer found Machu Picchu decades before American: June 5 2008. August Berns, a German businessman, arranged with President Balta of Peru in 1867 to set up a lumber mill at the foot of the mountain on which Machu Picchu is located. Berns also traded in gold.

'We found that Berns and his colleagues extracted gold from archaeological remains at Machu Picchu using a company that had won a mining concession for extracting wood and gold, in the area where the citadel is located,' Peruvian historian Carlos Carcelen told reporters. Carcelen did his research with American cartographer Paolo Greer, French archaeologist Alain Gioda and British historian Alex Chepstow-Lusty. They researched archives in Peru and Spain questioning the idea Bingham 'discovered' Machu Picchu in 1911. 'Sadly, we demonstrated that there was a major looting of gold objects which later were sold to European museums and universities,' Carcelen added."

Peru Guards Its Guano as Demand Soars Again - NYTimes.com

2008-06-15T06:24:00.000-07:00

Peru Guards Its Guano as Demand Soars Again - NYTimes.com: In May of 2008, Peru's guano trade resurfaces as an important economic asset.

"The dung will probably never be the focus of a boom as intense as the one in the 19th century, when deposits were 150 feet high, with export proceeds accounting for most of the national budget. The guano on most islands, including Isla de Asia, south of the capital, Lima, now reaches less than a foot or so. But the guano that remains here is coveted when viewed in the context of the frenzy in Peru and abroad around synthetic fertilizers like urea, which has doubled in price to more than $600 a ton in the last year."

A Real Archaeologist Comments on Indiana Jones

2008-05-24T17:03:00.000-07:00

Perhaps by now you've seen the beginnings of the parallel between this real-life "blog narrative" and the adventures of Indiana Jones, yet they took place almost sixty years before the time frame of Raiders of the Lost Ark. I hope you can endure the snail's pace in which the story is unfolding. As a movie, the adventures of Paul Boyton and George Kiefer would make the perfect prequel to the Indiana Jones sagas, if we could dispense with the fictional glamour of Hollywood and take a more serious look at America and the actions of American citizens in the world.

Although not an archaeologist, George Kiefer read extensively in the travel journals of the day that explored and documented the archaeological treasures of Peru. He also consulted with local experts, visited museums, and loved books. Paul Boyton could be more likely cast as Indiana Jones, the insatiable adventurer, but it is very possible that George accompanied him on his previous adventures before their joint trip to Peru. I am still looking for some tangible evidence of that.

George, a lover of artifacts, and Paul, the adventurer, both sought the spectacular and risked their lives for a dictator in a foreign country. In Peru, they found a country's cultural heritage under attack, from the aggressive naval bombardments and the Chilean army's imminent march on Lima, and from continuing depredations on Peru's archaeological resources by treasure hunters.

The Necropolis of Ancon, visited in November, 1880 by Paul Boyton and George Kiefer, held boundless treasures, including gold, although they possibly did not know it at the time. And in those days, few knew how, or perhaps had the motivation, to employ disciplined archaeological techniques, but collectors had already unearthed many of these treasures, some of them ending up in private collections in Lima.

In contrast, Brian Fagan, Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at University of California, Santa Barbara, writes in the Wall Street Journal on May 24, 2008 about modern archaeologists:

"Today there are at least 10,000 of us poking around every corner of the world, as opposed to Indy's day, when much of the past was still underground and the chances of making a truly spectacular discovery were significantly higher. Most of us will never come upon a golden artifact. We deal in the arcane and obscure -- the butchery practices of Neanderthal hunters, the optimal weight of cod salted by medieval fishers, and the changing painted decoration of ancient Pueblo vessels. We survey miles of long abandoned irrigation canals to reconstruct ancient field systems. We spend months studying faded notebooks in museum archives. Nearly all of us are specialists, each with our tiny expertise, often in subjects so narrowly focused that they interest fewer than a half-dozen colleagues." An Archaeologist Whips Indy - WSJ.com

Be that as it may, collectors of the 1880s began building U.S. and European collections before the expertise of modern archaeology was available. Collections of Peruvian artifacts in U.S. museums may fail to have even the minimum of provenance information accompanying them. While we can't undo the past, we can still learn something useful for modern archaeological science by exploring this territory.

For this reason, the story of Paul Boyton and George Kiefer transcends the movies of the swashbuckling Indiana Jones. In this story, we can indulge in two Americans' real-life fascination with antiquities and adventure, while we struggle to understand the ensuing human tragedy, efforts to pass on a legacy, and questions about the involvement of the United States in foreign wars.

The Necropolis of Ancon

2008-05-07T17:43:00.000-07:00

Fisherman occupied the Peruvian coastline back at least 3,500 years, and in the region around the Necropolis of Ancon, occupation dates to at least 2,000 BC. Projectile points on the lomas possibly date back to 6,000 BC. The more elaborate burials in the Necropolis of Ancon appear to have been made from 500 AD to the Spanish conquest. The word necropolis does not truly reflect the characteristics of the site, as burials intermixed with domestic architecture and production areas for pottery, metallic objects, and salt.

The food of the early Ancon inhabitants included potatoes, peppers, guava, beans, squash, sweet potatoes, and peanuts. Villagers subsisted on fishing and farming, on imported tubers from the highlands, oca (Oxalis tuberosa), ulluco (ullucus tuberossus), lucuma (a fruit), and Pacae fruit. (Moseley, 1992, p. 106) The inhabitants of the area interacted with other areas to a large extent, indicated by the large amount of imported items. (Kaulicke, 1997)

Even during this time of turmoil in Peru, the Necropolis of Ancon attracted the interest of both amateur and trained archaeologists. The extensive burial sites engendered innate curiosity, the thrill of treasure-seeking and opportunity to add to scientific knowledge, while the recently built railroad and the resort atmosphere provided accessibility and some degree of comfort after a long day of dust and dirt digging.

In the burial grounds, flying sand stung the faces of the grave-diggers and the hot sands burned their feet. Gravediggers often sought only the finest items. They often threw away damaged pieces, tossed the human remains in the sands, after stripping them of any valuable items. They littered the ground with pot sherds, used the fragments of woven cloth as packing for ceramics, and left the skulls scattered on the surface.

Similar to the fate of other valuable resources of Peru, collectors exported the artifacts to Europe or North America. The abundance of artifacts spawned substantial collections both in Peru and abroad. With Peru's absorption in the deteriorating economic situation and the approaching conflict, the collection and export of antiquities by both notable residents and foreign visitors met little resistance.

In 1874 and 1875, two German geologists, Wilhelm Reiss and Alphons Stübel, excavated at the Necropolis of Ancon. The grave goods extracted by Reiss and Stübel were placed in the Anthropology Museum in Berlin. (Kaulicke, 1997). Apparently, about 2,000 objects were archived there, including pottery, textiles, wood objects, gourds, plant materials, and three mummies. (Moseley, 1992, p. 106)

In 1878 J. Wasner purchased from Umlauff, a Hamburg dealer, 154 items (probably from Stübel's excavations) for the Museum fur Volkerkunde in Vienna. These included three mummies and grave goods. (Feest, 1987, pg. 72) The Austrian consul-general Christian Kruger donated items to the same museum in 1879. The collection included 276 items from Peru, including 191 ceramic items from Ancon, as well as other items from Trujillo and Casma (Feest, 1987, pg. 72).

In 1880, Charles Wiener of the French Ministry of Instruction arrived in Peru. He visited the antiquities collection of Mr. Jose Mariano Macedo and Espantoso and the Museum of Sr. Raimondi. Wiener excavated at Ancon with the help of his countryman of the French man-of-war. J. M. [Joseph Meadows] In 1884 he donated 53 items from Peru, including Ancon, to the Vienna Museum fur Volkerkunde.

A Peruvian collector, Dr. Jose Mariano Macedo, was a physician, "a mestizo with a high percentage of Indian blood...a notable surgeon, professor at the School of Medicine and founder of the Sociedad de Medicina in Lima." (Von Schuler-Schömig, 1987, pg. 171). The eminent naturalist, Antonio Raimondi, was a political refugee from Milan and had lived in Peru from 1850. He continued his contacts with countrymen in Milan and in 1858 he started a pre-Columbian collection for the Milan Civic Museum of Natural Resources, sending textiles and a mummy from Arica. In 1863 he sent needles, bones, and octopus eyes, that were used by the ancient Peruvians in the mummies as substitutes for human eyes.

Cowper who reviewed Wiener's book about the area was also familiar with the Necropolis of Ancon (Panama Star, April 23rd 1881). Cowper learned the business of gunpowder manufacturing in England. As appointed by the Peruvian government, he went to Peru around 1871 to run a gunpowder factory, and may have been associated with the railroads. He and his family left Peru after the outbreak of war with Chile and returned to Great Britain. While in Peru, Cowper visited Ancon. He described small square mats with an intricate pattern of men and animals, which he claimed were commonly encountered in walks over the Ancon plain. Small bags found in the graves contained haricots, coca and maize. Cowper found bags with coca leaves in the armpits of a mummy pressed between the arm and the body. In the bag, a small rag was tied around a small piece of earth the size of a pea.

The New York Times (August 26, 1901) reported that Spenser St. John, British minister to Peru, collected 400 pieces of Peruvian pottery, possibly found as grave goods. He planned to sell them at auction in the fall of 1901 or 1902 in London. The pieces included a panther suckling her cubs and sculptures of various fruits, animals, and human heads.

Resources:
Feest, Christian F. 1987. “Survey of the Pre-Columbian collections from the Andean highlands in the Museum fur Volkerkunde, Vienna.” IN Pre-Columbian Collections in European museums. Edited by Anne-Marie Hocquenghem, et al. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest. Pg. 71-76.

Kaulicke, Peter. 1997. Contextos funerarios de Ancon. Esbozo de una sintesis analitica. Lima, Pontificia Universidad Catolica.

Moseley, Michael E. 1996. The Incas and their ancestors: the archaeology of Peru. London, Thames and Hudson. 272 pp.

Von Schuler-Schömig, Immina. 1987 “The Central Andean collections at the Museum für völkerkunde Berlin, Staatliche Museen preubischer Kulturebesitz - their origin and present organization” IN Pre-Columbian Collections in European museums. Edited by Anne-Marie Hocquenghem, et al. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest. Pp. 169-177

Young-Sanchez, Margaret Anna. 2000. Textiles from Peru’s central coast, 750-1100: The Reiss and Stubel Collection. Columbia University. PhD Dissertation.

News: Peruvian Mummy in Royal Bolton Museum

2008-05-05T19:29:00.000-07:00

Unwrapping Secret Of Bolton Museums Mummy (from The Bolton News):

A new exhibit at the Royal Bolton Museum in Lancashire, England displays two Peruvian mummies, at least one of them reportedly from the Rimac Valley in Peru. An x-ray of the mummy revealed it was missing hands and feet, although wrapped with great care in a cloth bundle. The second mummy, 800 years old, starred in a TV show, Mummy Forensics, recently shown on the History Channel. William Smithies, a worker in the cotton mills in Peru from 1896 to 1927, donated much of the Peruvian objects on display. The exhibit runs through August 2, 2008.

The Women of Lima

2008-05-02T20:35:00.000-07:00

In amongst the tales of battles, political intrigues, and the exploits of young men, one finds little mention of women, their deeds, or their views. Flora Tristan, when revisiting her birthplace of Lima in the 1830s, provided a fascinating portrait of the women of Lima She proclaimed that nowhere else on earth were women more free or more influential. In Lima they were the "instigators of everything". Nearly all were married at 11 or 12 years of age. They repeatedly enchanted foreign visitors with their opaque white skin, bright red lips, curly black hair, and dark eyes. They exuded an indefinable expression of spirited pride and languor. (Tristan, 1993).

Flora Tristan described the women of Lima as uneducated and illiterate, but charming and with natural wit and intelligence. They wore a distinctive style of dress, called the saya y manto, a long pleated and closely-fitted dark-colored skirt of satin, lined with silk or cotton. They pulled a mantle of black satin over the shoulder to hide one eye. The saya y manto allowed the women to go everywhere, to bull fights, the theater, balls, churches, promenades, and public meeting without restriction and without being known.

Tristan contends that the women of Lima required proof of devotion in the form of gold or gifts. The affairs of the household held little interest for them, but they involved themselves in politics and intrigue, with positioning their husbands and their families in lines of authority within the cultural hierarchy.

By 1867, Madeleine Dahlgren, wife of a U.S. Navy Admiral stationed in Callao, reported that this style of dress had all but disappeared, to be replaced more often by a mantilla, or spanish veil. The women still might go to the opera unescorted, except for a servant, wrapped in a manta. Satin shoes with silk stockings completed their attire.

Resources:
Tristan, Flora, Doris Beik, and Paul Harold Beik. 1993. Flora Tristan, utopian feminist: her travel diaries and personal crusade. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 195 pp.
Dahlgren, Madeleine Vinton. 1881. South Sea sketches: a narrative. Boston: James R. Osgood. 238 pp.

News: James Bond Stirs Up Chile-Bolivian Conflict

2008-04-24T21:35:00.000-07:00

Andean Currents: James Bond and the War of the Pacific:
A new James Bond film set for release in November aggravated old wounds recently. Currently being filmed in the Chilean city of Antofagasta, in a region fought over during the War of the Pacific, the film plot calls for the overthrow of an existing regime. The filming requires Bolivian flags and Bolivian officials, angering the local citizens. Several dozen residents protested at the film site and the local paper read, 'Chile is Chile. We aren't Bolivian Indians. Imperialist British out.' Police arrested the mayor of a nearby town when he stormed the set in his vehicle.

News: Peru's Doe Run Smelter Fined for Toxic Emissions

2008-04-24T21:18:00.000-07:00

Andean Currents: Peru's Doe Run smelter feels the heat:
Doe Run and La Oroya.... a connection between Missouri and the high Andes of Peru. A Missouri-based company, Doe Run, operating a smelter in the Andean La Oroya district of Peru, has had its environmental certification suspended by an independent auditor.

The mines in the Oroya area produce iron, zinc, copper, silver and gold, now in high demand with limited supply. Doe Run acquired the smelter to process these minerals in 1997. This article states that "La Oroya, the site of the smelter, repeatedly ranks on the Blacksmith Institute’s list of the top ten polluted places on the planet, sharing the dubious honor with places like Chernobyl, Ukraine." Last year the smelter repeatedly exceeded the maximum limit for toxic emissions.

Large Torpedo Explodes at Callao

2008-04-23T19:26:00.000-07:00

The New York Times (New York, N.Y.; Nov 16, 1880; pg. 1) reported that, on the 10th of October, 1880, the Peruvians placed a large torpedo holding three tons of powder in the harbor at Callao. Clockwork controlled the firing mechanism. At 9 o'clock in the morning, observers on the coast saw an immense volume of water shoot into the air. The ground shook. In Chorrillos, a house collapsed.

However, the target of the attack, the Chilean fleet, remained out of danger. In Iquique, where a portion of the fleet had returned, they heard that the Almirante Cochrane was sunk, but this was merely a rumor.

Current News: Vanishing Glaciers Threaten Water Supplies in Peru and Bolivia

2008-04-20T20:43:00.000-07:00

ABC News: Vanishing Glaciers Threaten Livelihoods: Latin America's glaciers may melt within the next fifteen years, with Peru the hardest hit.

Loss of Andes glaciers threatens water supply - CNN.com: Boliva contibutes .03 percent of the worl's carbon dioxide emissions compared to the United States that contributes 25 percent. Bolivia's president, Evo Morales says that he may seek legal remedies against countries that contribute to the global warming.

Peru bets on desalination to ensure water supplies « WASH news Latin America and Caribbean: Peru is planning to desalinate water to make up for the lack of water if the glaciers disappear. The mines in th high Andes are going to start pumping water from the ocean for their operations.

News: Peru Demands Return of Machu Picchu Artifacts

2008-04-19T13:49:00.000-07:00

In the News:
Peru Asks Yale To Return Artifacts -- Courant.com

In the early 20th century, Hiram Bingham, a Yale professor, journeyed to Peru and brought back to the United States a large number of artifacts from the fabulous ruins at Machu Picchu. While this is past the time period of this story, it is relevant in that it involves foreigners who came to Peru, made collections of artifacts, and took them away to other countries.

As I understand it, it was not until after the War of the Pacific that Peru made laws that applied to the export of antiquities. It has been said that these laws were a direct result of the transfer of collections to other parts of the world, although admittedly this may have been done to preserve the collections from the war zone.

I don't know the exact nature of the agreement between Peru and Yale, but supposedly the artifacts that Bingham took back to Yale were taken on loan. They were to be returned to Peru at some later point in time, which never occurred.

In 2005, Peru initiated a new request to have the artifacts returned. In September 2007, there was a memorandum of understanding drawn up, and a Yale archeologist, Richard Burger, inventoried the items, and designated which ones were of museum quality. Those that were of museum quality were to be included in an international exhibit, and eventually were to arrive back in Peru to be put into a museum.

With the inventory in progress, the full extent of the size of the collection became evident, amounting to perhaps 40,000 items. Peru is now asking for the return of the entire collection.

News: Chile Returns Books Taken from Peru During the War of the Pacific

2008-04-19T13:14:00.000-07:00

During the war, the Chileans took valuable books that they found, especially during the occupancy of Lima, the capital, and sent the books back to Chile. It appears that close to 4,000 of these books are going to be returned to Peru. Peru plans to scan and digitize the books with the help of Spain and Japan, as part of a larger project, and will make them available for a fee.

Living in Peru » News » War of the Pacific books Chile returned to Peru to be scanned and digitized

Those of us who understand the power of free libraries wonder if it would be possible to make these books available without a fee. Is there another way in which they could recoup their expenses?

The Campbell Brothers

2008-04-07T19:16:00.000-07:00

James and William Campbell, both from Paul Boyton's former hometown, Allegheny City, worked for the M.A. and Panama Company, a railroad company in Peru. William wrote to his father from Arequipa (published in the New York Times May 10, 1880) that on March 7, 16,000 Chileans attacked Mollendo in Peru. James ran all the movable engines and machinery to a place of safety and buried the rest. The two brothers were captured and made an escape.

James was recaptured and refused to tell them where the machinery was buried. The Chileans tied him to a horse and forced him to walk 13 miles through the sands under the burning sun. They refused to give him water and threatened to shoot him. James was put into jail in Ansenia, where he was tried and sentenced to death. The Chileans burned or dynamited all the machinery and stores that they could find.

On August 18, the New York Times reported the two sons of Felix Campbell of Allegheny city were still captive. Mr. Campbell made application to Secretary Evarts, asking for his interference.

W.R. Grace Continues Shipping Munitions

2008-04-06T05:20:00.000-07:00

With the assumption of the Peruvian presidency by Nicolás de Piérola, W. R. Grace & Co. continued to act as a purchasing agent of munitions but W. R. Grace withdrew from active involvement. Charles Flint corresponded with John Ericsson regarding his torpedo designs.

In 1861 John Ericsson built the Monitor that fought the Confederate Merrimac during the Civil War. Ericcson worked previously with the Peruvians in May of 1862, when he was asked to build two boats similar to the Monitor. (Yábar, 2001, pg. 410) Ericsson also invented two other innovative weapons, one a torpedo cannon that could fire projectiles and also the Destroyer, a boat with a cannon mounted in its prow.

Flint and Ericsson tested dummy projectiles on the North River. Gullermo Bogardus, the agent for Peru, and Flint inspected the original Destroyer then in the port of New York and negotiated the purchase and a delivery date. It is possible that Peru succeeded in acquiring the torpedo cannon, but there is no indication that they were able to acquire the Destroyer. (Yábar, 2001, 411-413)

Realizing that the ports of Peru would be blockaded by Chile, the Grace firm shipped a cartridge factory to Peru which began turning out cartridges soon after its arrival.

Resources:
Yábar Acuña, Francisco. 2001. Las Fuerzas Sutiles y la defensa de costa durante la Guerra del Pacifico. Lima: Dirección de Intereses Marítimos. 650 pp.

Peru Loses Admiral Grau and the Huascar

2008-04-02T19:41:00.000-07:00

When the war broke out, Admiral Miguel Grau was serving in Congress, but immediately resigned and took command of the Peruvian ship, the Huascar. He donated all the prize-money due him from various captures of enemy fleet ships to the fund for carrying on the war.

From May to October the Peruvian ship the Huascar prevented the completion of the Chilean plan of battle. The men of the Huascar prevented the Chileans from landing in Peruvian territory (Lopez,1930). The Huascar and the Independence fought as a division.The Pilcomayo and the Union formed the other division, commanded by Aurelio Garcia y Garcia.

The Huascar sailed south, although in poor condition with a foul bottom and boilers that needed repair. It broke blockades, chased and ambushed the Chilean fleet. On October 8, 1879, the Chilean ironclad, Almirante Cochrane, and her sister ship, the Blanco Encalada, approached the Huascar. At 8:30 am Miguel Grau ordered the engineer, Samuel MacMahon, to increase the speed three or four revolutions. Having done this, MacMahon went up to survey the position of the enemy ships. The Cochrane was gaining on them, so he went down to increase the steam up to 25 to 30 pounds of pressure.

At Angamos Point the ship was surrounded by the entire Chilean fleet. Admiral Grau was killed and the Huascar was captured by the Chileans. MacMahon was given the order by the fourth officer then in command to open the valves and sink the monitor. But before this action could be completed, the ship was boarded. The Chileans took MacMahon prisoner and put a revolver to his chest, ordering him to close the condenser valve and the main site where the water was entering. Pumps were started, and the fires were extinguished.

Of 200 crew members, 28 died. The Chileans took the rest of the sailors prisoner, along with 48 wounded.The cook, Edward Ford, from the U.S. was gravely wounded. Among the prisoners were 33 English, eight Germans, one Norwegian, three French, one Dane and one U.S. citizen. With the capture of the Huascar, the Chileans dealt a serious blow against Peru. Peru subsequently lost any real ability to defend themselves or conduct the war from the sea.

On October 26, 1879, an 8,000-man Chilean expedition headed north. By November 2 they disembarked at Pisagua, and obtained a beachhead. The Peruvian and Bolivian forces retreated as the invaders marched forward.

Resources:
Lopez, Jacinto. 1930. Historia de la Guerra del Guano y el Salitre o Guerra del Pacifico entre Chile, Bolivia y El Peru. New York: De Laisne & Rossboro.

1879 September

2008-04-01T19:29:00.000-07:00

On September 3rd, Consul Marquez informed the Peruvian government that another Herreshoff torpedo boat acquired through the Grace company had arrived in Panama, coming from New York. He was worried that the authorities would confiscate the cargo. The government sent the Oroya to bring the munitions to Peru. (Yábar, 2001, p. 129)

On the 10th another Herreshoff torpedo of the the same type, completely armed and 70 feet in length arrived from the same source. Also reportedly arriving at approximately the same time were six Krupp cannons destined for Bolivia, three million rifle and machine gun munitions, 4500 rifles, 2 Nordefield machine guns and 40 conical steel shot for the squadron. The Oroya went to Panama to receive this cargo, entered directly to the port and loaded the armaments in Taboga. The Chileans objected strongly, but by the 23rd of September, the Oroya, with its cargo, departed from Panama headed towards Callao. (Yábar, 2001, p. 129)

Marquez expected a yacht torpedo and two more launches to arrive by the beginning of October, sent from New York by Canevaro, Vice President of the Republic. A torpedo launch arrived on the Ailza. Three naval officials went to Panama to await its arrival. The chief M. De la Barrera observed that it lacked navigation equipment and machinery. They believed that after it was tested in Europe, it was poorly attended. Rust had formed in all the parts that were not copper or bronze. Pistons, cylinders and condensers were rusted shut. It is possibly this launch that was captured by the Amazonas in Ballenita, a port in Ecuador.

Resources
Yábar Acuña, Francisco. 2001. Las Fuerzas Sutiles y la defensa de costa durante la Guerra del Pacifico. Lima: Dirección de Intereses Marítimos. 650 pp.

The Torpedo Men

2008-03-31T18:57:00.000-07:00

In August 1879, the Chilean consul in Panama again protested the departure of the Limeña with torpedos for Peru. Chilean spies worked for the Panama railroad. It was almost impossible to secretly ship arms, because the Chileans knew when they would arrive on the other side of the isthmus.

By August, there were three groups of torpedo men from the U.S. in Peru: the Lay, the U.S. Torpedo Co., and the Herreshoff men. A "rowdy, hard-drinking lot", they drew their pay in gold, and consorted with ladies at the Callao waterfront.

On the 15th, the Chileans detained an armored torpedo boat leaving Pisagua for Iquique with four crew members under orders of Peru. The Chileans arrested them and placed them on board an armored ship the same day. The crew included William Alfred Scott, 41, the British commander of the vessel who had contracted the other members, Abraham Johnson of Jamaica, Cosem Espiro, 31, a Greek,and John Shertzer. a U.S. engineer. Before they were arrested, they threw overboard two booms 15 feet in length, each one with a torpedo full of dynamite. The government of Peru was paying them ten soles daily with the promise of paying them 10,000 soles for each armored Chilean ship that they sunk with their torpedos, through Casa Grace. They had made four large torpedos, capable of holding 200 pounds of dynamite, as well has two 90 pounds ones and four smaller ones of four pounds. They were also to earn 5000 soles for any wood boats they were able to sink. Their contract was time-limited, and extended two months from the time they left Callao. (Lopez, 1930, pg. 307, 308)

On the 20th, Charles W. Read, an ex-confederate recruited by Charles Flint, sailed for Peru. During the Civil War, Read commanded a Confederate torpedo squadron on the Mississippi River. Read brought with him an engineer, John H. Smith. After previously testing torpedos in Narragansett Bay, they followed the munitions down and across the isthmus and to Peru. The Peruvian Navy commissioned Read as a commander and offered him a substantial amount of prize money if they sunk the principal Chilean war ships.

A dispute arose amongst the Peruvian officers, when they heard that a prize would be awarded to Read for sinking the Chilean ships. The naval commandant at Callao told Read that no prize money would be forthcoming, so Read headed back to the United States. W. R. Grace was disgusted with this handling of affairs and felt the torpedo men had made a poor use of the weapons.

Resources
Lopez, Jacinto. 1930. Historia de la Guerra del Guano y el Salitre o Guerra del Pacifico entre Chile, Bolivia y El Peru. New York: De Laisne & Rossboro.

A New Yorker's View of the War

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In the July 21, 1879 New York Times, Jacob Wrey Mould, a prominent New York architect, expressed his opinion of the war. Jacob Wrey Mould was born in England but now lived in New York. He worked with Frederick Law Olmstead in designing many of the edifices in New York's Central Park. In Lima Peru, Mould was building a mansion of freestone and Philadelphia brick for Mr. E.C. Dubois, subcontractor of Henry Meiggs and brother-in-law of Auguste Dreyfus, the Paris banker. Mr. Mould recently returned from South America and provided New Yorkers with his own assessment of the situation there.

In Mould's opinion, the Peruvian soldiers were brave, amenable to discipline and good workers, but the Peruvian officers were notoriously incapable and corrupt, fit only to wage a war of words and profit without exposing themselves to danger. Mr. Mould reportedly called the murdered Pardo "an egotist as well as a knave", that corruption pervaded all sectors of the government. He explained that the Roman Catholic party controlled two-thirds of the wealth and supported Nicolás de Piérola. Viewed by some as reactionary and nonprogressive, Piérola was, in his opinion, the most liberal and progressive statesman in Peru, a believer in popular education, native industries and internal improvements and a strong supporter of foreign investment and the development of natural resources.

Munitions Shipments Across Panama

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The railroad across the Isthmus of Panama served a strategic purpose for the acquisition of arms for Peru. While Chile shipped their weapons from Europe around the cape, Chile tried to prevent the traffic of arms across the isthmus. Also, apparently Panama was also in a state of siege. Policies in place required that agents of the Panama Railroad Company report any arms being shipped. Since a permit was required from the government, the Chilean consul could learn of any impending shipments. (New York Times, September 20, 1879)

On May 9, 1879 the Chilean consul in Panama claimed that the steamship the Acapulco arriving that day from New York carried 3,000 rifles and 100 boxes of munitions bought in the United States and directed to the Consul of Bolivia. In addition, he claimed that the steamship Para brought 150 boxes of arms and munitions consigned to the consul of Peru. The Secretary of the government of Panama insisted that he was misinformed.

On May 19th, the Chilean consul in Panama denounced the arrival of arms and munitions for Peru on the Crescent City from New York. He learned this from a cable from the Chilean minister in Paris. The consul asked the government of Panama for the shipping manifest of the steamships to see what quantity of arms had been brought.

On June 2nd, Panama, after consultation with Colombia, resolved to have no limitation on any type of traffic or merchandise across the isthmus, since there was no customs at either end of the isthmus, and held the establishment of such to be inconvenient and ineffective. Henry Ehrman, a banker, handled the transfer of munitions across the isthmus.

On June 25th, the Panama consul to Lima, Consul Marquez, reported that three torpedos of the Casa Grace were in Panama (Lopez, 1930, pg. 298). On June 26, Panama apparently reversed its earlier decision and issued a prohibition for the use of the ports to transport cannons, arms, and munitions to other than neutral ports. There is some indication that a possible revolution in Panama occurred on July 7th, and by the 29th, Panama again agreed to permit the transport of arms without obstacle.

On July 13th a Mr. Fisher wrote to Secretary Evarts regarding the stated neutrality of the United States in the Chile and Peru-Bolivian war. He reported large boxes on the train cars in Panama that from their shape and size attracted the attention of General Edward McCook, his fellow passenger on the Acapulco. They were eight foot square and high, one on each platform car and five in all marked the same Cargadora de Huano, Callao. A torpedo shipped from the United State to Peru had already been seized by request of the Chilean consulate at Panama, so other shipments of a similar nature were expected.

Fisher also met Lieutenant Eden R.N. on his way to Callao to join the H.B.M. ship Triumph. Eden told him that the Captain of the Lima had refused to receive on board five boxes marked as above, because he had heard they contained a torpedo boat for the Peruvian Navy. Fisher suggested that the United States consul at Aspinwall be instructed to examine suspicious looking packages.

A report to the New York Times dated September 11 (Panama) indicated that the shipping of munitions across the isthmus continued. Barrels marked "Breakfast Bacon" and destined for Chile contained contraband of war. Containers of lard heading for Peru carried cases of cartridges. Shippers marked containers full of Remington rifles "agricultural equipment". Torpedos masqueraded as "derrick material" or "guano shoots". Innovative agents labelled boxes of cartridges as "Mrs. Winslow's Soothing syrup". The report raised the concern that such shipments endangered the lives of workers and passengers on both the ships and railroads transporting the goods. (New York Times, September 20, 1879)

Resources
Lopez, Jacinto. 1930. Historia de la Guerra del Guano y el Salitre o Guerra del Pacifico entre Chile, Bolivia y El Peru. New York: De Laisne & Rossboro.

Coastal Bombardments in April 1879

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On April 15th, 1879, the Chilean ships cruised the coast of Peru, destroying the equipment for loading guano and ballast (Lopez, pg. 130) First, they destroyed the bridges with cannon shots and then they destroyed the mining structures themselves, setting the wood on fire. On April 18th the Chileans bombarded Pisagua with incendiaries. In the resulting fire, five women and four children died. Two children were wounded.

Resources
Lopez, Jacinto. 1930. Historia de la Guerra del Guano y el Salitre o Guerra del Pacifico entre Chile, Bolivia y El Peru. New York: De Laisne & Rossboro.

W.R. Grace Seeks Torpedo Experts

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W.R. Grace contacted a Civil War veteran, Captain Griffin. The Captain agreed to sink the Almirante Cochrane or the Blanco Encalada for one million dollars. With Griffin not willing to lower his price, Grace said he would contact men of the Navy or on the Confederate side. He suggested that his brother in Peru, Michael Grace, contact American torpedo men there and also William H. Cilley. Cilley had been the superintendent of the Oroya railroad, and was still in Peru trying to salvage the Henry Meigg's fortunes. On June 21, 1879 William Alfred Scott of England and John Shertzer, both long time residents of Peru, were engaged to build floating torpedos in Iquique.

Arms Shipments Under U.S. Neutrality

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The World Book of 1952 said that "no important problems in foreign relations arose" during the administration of Rutherford B. Hayes. He and his Secretary of State, William Evarts, are said to have maintained an outwardly neutral stance toward the war. Some said that the Europeans welcomed the war, as they had endured a long period without seeing any return on their capital nor interest in their debt. Their interests were more aligned with Chile, also a debtor, but not to the extent that Peru had reached.

After the Civil War, American military forces were downsized and ex-military officers looked for new opportunities. Peru sought foreign expertise and munitions developed during that war. A young Union naval engineer named John Louis Lay made what is known as a spar torpedo, an explosive charge on the end of a pole twenty or thirty feet long. After the war, Lay became a torpedo manufacturer and developed a new torpedo that could be sent against a target a mile away. The United States Torpedo Co. manufactured a somewhat similar instrument.

For use with these torpedos, Navy officers preferred a small boat made by the shipbuilding firm of Herreshoff of Bristol, Rhode Island. Grace took a ride on one in Long Island Sound. He decided that the only thing to save Peru was torpedo launches, and bought it for $18,500, billing the craft to the Compañía Cargadora del Perú, guano dealers of Callao.

The boat was 50 foot in length. It was difficult to disguise, so delivery to Peru was problematic. It is implied that the purchase of two steamers by the Peruvian government from the Pacific Steam Navigation Co. was required to effect the delivery of this boat and five others. Herreshoff boats were shipped in sections as "carriages" all ready to bolt and put back together. The first launch arrived in Peru in August of 1879.

Grace, acting as an agent of Peru, sent several torpedos and torpedo boats to Peru along with experts from the two companies. W.W. Rowley of the Lay Company went down to direct the proposed plan, traveling under the name of H. J. Patchen.

Meanwhile, Charles Flint wrapped torpedos in oil cloth and sent a thousand rifles masquerading as agricultural equipment to Peru. Flint decided that by shipping through Colombia, they could avoid having to cross Panama, where there was likelihood that the munitions would fall into the hands of the Chileans. Ten dirigible torpedos from Pratt and Whitney were slipped into the center of ten cases of oil-cloth.

Flint determined that oilcloth shipped by itself weighed about the same as two layers of oilcloth with a torpedo inside. "Peru did a surprisingly large business in oilcloth during those days" Cartridges surrounded by lard were sent in lard barrels. (Flint, 1923)

Resources
Flint, Charles R. 1923. Memories of an active life: men and ships and sealing wax. Putnam. 349 pp.

Chile's Military Strategy

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Chile's plan was simple. The squadron would sail to Callao, where they would destroy the Peruvian ships. The army would capture Antofagasta, disembarking at Tarapacá. Having destroyed the Peruvian fleet, Chile would block the port at Callao, and occupy Tarapacá. By so doing, they would control the coast of Peru and all trade. This would force Peru to sign a peace treaty with terms favorable to Chile. The Chilean fleet planned to head to Callao under secrecy, placing itself in position to strike at the same time the cable arrived with the declaration of war.

On April 2nd, 1879, the Chilean congress authorized war and on April 5th the declaration of war was made, giving the Chilean squadron the time to reach Callao. However, the Chilean plan did not come to fruition as planned.

Instead, Admiral Juan Williams Rebolledo, commander of the Chilean fleet, decided to blockade Iquique and began bombardments on undefended ports along the coast of Peru. Thus, his fleet remained at the port of Iquique from April 5 to August 5 of 1879. Reportedly, his plan was to induce the Peruvian ships to leave the protection of the docks in Callao, so that they could be engaged at sea.

Admiral Juan Williams Rebolledo
Painting by Manuel Antonio Caro (1835-1903)

Source -- Wikipedia

Military Readiness of Peru and Chile

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Throughout the developing conflict, many outside observers expressed opinions on the war preparations of both Peru and Chile. In general, observers felt that Peru was ill-prepared for war. It had suffered from years of political instability, and lacked a well-organized military force with a sufficient number of trained officers and modern equipment. A cultural divide between the highland cultures and the more international atmosphere of Lima added to the lack of unity of purpose.

Both countries recognized the importance of naval power, as both countries possessed long expanses of coastline with cities vulnerable to bombardment. Adding to this, coastal deserts created barriers to travel, and Peru needed better internal transportation both for commerce and defense.

Both countries began a build-up of arms. Ship builders and weapons manufacturers in both Europe and the hemisphere channeled war materials to both countries. Peru acquired the Independencia and the Huascar. They purchased monitors left idle at the close of the U.S. civil war, christened the Atahualpa and the Manco Capac. Peruvian naval officers received orders to inspect the warships in Callao. They found it necessary to put them in dry dock to examine and repair them. Piérola was allowed to return to Peru.

The historian Paz Soldan said that the Peruvian sailors lacked instruction and discipline, and failed to diligently pursue practice exercises, either through the lack of attention of commanders or the state of reparations in which they found themselves. Peru needed to recruit new crew members, because a major part of the navy seaman had been Chileans, so recently dismissed from service.

In Peru, recruits were not forthcoming. To fortify the armies, police drafted working class men. In March of 1879, the Peruvian military resorted to recruiting citizens by force and paying strong recruitment premiums to foreigners, such as Americans, Irish, Italians, and Ecuadorians. (Lopez, 1930, pg. 118)

Spenser St. John, British minister at Lima, saw in the ruling class only "ignorance or frivolity...on all sides, incapacity appears to be in possession of every important post...Peru appears struck as with paralysis: the people themselves seem as indifferent to the future as the governing classes." (Kiernan, V.G., 1955, pg. 19)

Chileans were "ethnically and culturally more unifed" than the Peruvians, and enjoyed a more stable government over the years. (Dobyns, 1976, p. 196) Their army and navy had modern equipment, including two new recently-purchased armored ships, the Almirante Cochrane and the Blanco Encalada.

Resources
Dobyns, Henry F. And Paul L. Doughty. 1976. Peru: a cultural history. New York, Oxford University. 336 pp.

Kiernan, V.G. 1955. “Foreign Interests in the War of the Pacific” IN the Hispanic American Historical Review.

Lopez, Jacinto. 1930. Historia de la Guerra del Guano y el Salitre o Guerra del Pacifico entre Chile, Bolivia y El Peru. New York: De Laisne & Rossboro.

Bolivia Declares War

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On March 1, 1879, Bolivia declared war on Chile, ordered the expulsion of all Chileans and placed an embargo on their property. This was telegraphed around the world with the purpose of reducing Chile's access to arms, boats and military weapons. Because of treaty obligations, Peru aligned with Bolivia, but requested mediation.

A Brooklyn newspaper article cites a circular sent to diplomats abroad by Señor Balmaceda, then Chilean Secretary for Foreign Affairs. The article claims that immediately after the declaration of war, 16,000 Chileans were expelled from Peru and Bolivia in such haste that they had no way to return to Chile, that they took refuge in British ships and launches, and their property was seized and confiscated. (Brooklyn Daily Eagle, Jan 30,1882 p. 2)

An apparent Peruvian, but anonymous, source (1882) wrote in this regard, roughly translated, that the only act of hostility employed by Peru was limited to the expulsion of Chilean day laborers, whose numbers had reached 16,000 in Taracapá (sic) and 30,000 in the rest of Peru, and were a constant menace even in times of peace. The source goes on to say that Peru, in her generosity, offered passage for hundreds of these day laborers, which only helped to serve Chilean plans by providing additional recruits for their military forces.

Resources
Anonymous, 1882. Passage from “Historia diplomatica de la Guerra del Pacifico.” IN Nueva revista de Buenos Aires. Edited by Vicente Gregorio Quesada and Ernesto Quesada. Year 2, Volume 4. pg 180-181. Link: Nueva revista de Buenos Aires By Vicente Gregorio Quesada, Ernesto Quesada
**************************
Author's Note:
I have received a comment that the statement that Peru or Bolivia might have taken steps to expel 16,000 Chileans might not be true. I have since been able to locate an apparent Peruvian source that in part corroborates the expulsion. I have edited the article to more clearly reflect the possible bias of each presentation.

Nicolás de Piérola's Attempts at Revolution

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In 1874 Nicolás de Piérola, no longer a member of the government, raised 1,000 men and attempted a revolution. He took command of the Talisman, a small steam-powered transport, purchased, armed and equipped in Great Britain by Guillermo Bogardus. The Talisman was captured by the Peruvian ironclad Hussead. Piérola took possession of the railroad, occupying the town of Moquegua. This was retaken by government forces and Piérola retreated to Torata.

With the intention of capturing Piérola, President Pardo went south on November 20 to Arequipa. He took command of the Army with 3,000 men in the field. Montoneros attacked the Oroya railroad, damaging the track and the telegraph. They attacked the Lima and Callao railroad, tore up the track, but failed to capture the train itself. Lima and Callao were under the watchful eye of volunteers, chiefly foreigners. The Peruvian press blamed the Chilean government for the action of the Talisman, saying that Chile provided her with the coal and provisions.

By December 6, Piérola's men ran short of provisions and deserted in large numbers. In Callao a party of twenty men, allegedly ex-army and navy officers, attempted to storm the building where other ex-army officers (bitter enemies of Pardo) were held prisoner. However the attackers captured neither the town nor the forts and armaments.

By December 11, the town of Torata was captured. In January Piérola reconstituted his men and they made an attempt to capture Arequipa.

The New York Times, August 11, 1875 reported that on the fourth of July, Arevalo, one of Piérola's officers during the Talisman expedition, headed an attack against the town of Islay. They robbed the custom-house, informed the populace that Piérola was in Arequipa. They then marched to Mollendo and captured the town. He and his troops then boarded the train to Arequipa. Reportedly Piérola was not there, but in Chile. When Arevalo arrived, a small force was waiting for them. They routed the revolutionaries, wounded Arevalo and took him captive. He soon died of his wounds.

Mariano Ignacio Prado was elected President in 1876. Prado was reported to be a fine-looking courteous man in his early 40’s, tall, well-built, with black hair and whiskers, with a kindly expression. He continued to embrace the railroads as the “mission of civilization” (Clayton, 1999)
Piérola and his followers invaded Peru from Chile and attempted to take back the government by revolutionary methods. In late 1876 October or November, Piérola was still at battle in the mountains.

In May of 1877, Piérola’s men seized the ironclad turret ship, the Huascar, in the harbor of Callao. The Huascar, built in 1864 and 15 years old, was an armor-plated monitor 200 feet in length, weighing 1130 tons with 300 horsepower. It carried two Armstrong cannons in a rotating tower. The tower was of iron, 30 feet in diameter and 5 inches thick. Piérola joined her at her next port of call.

Apparently the British merchants in Lima asked that the British navy go after the Huascar, because it was allegedly stopping the royal mail steamers and taking possession of the coal. However this fact was in dispute, as it is claimed that the coal was fairly purchased in a port that was under control of the rebels.

Confronting the Huascar, the British demanded that Piérola and his men haul down the Peruvian flag and surrender. Piérola told the British officer that the Huascar was a national man-of-war and the emblem would not be taken down while there was gun on board to defend it. The English fired on the ship, destroying the rigging, the boats and the steering gear. A three-hour battle followed. The Huascar limped toward shore, asking the Captain of the Port for ammunition. This was refused, so the Huascar continued to Iquique where Piérola surrendered his vessel to the Independencia.

The government released the Huascar "rebels" in early July, 1877.

Resources:

Clayton, Lawrence A. 1999. Peru and the United States: the Condor and the Eagle. Athens: University of Georgia Press. 1999.

New York Times. Dec 15. 1874. p. 2

Manuel Pardo, President of Peru

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Borrowing from the future, residents of the coastal region of Peru enjoyed a heady period of boom, even as they courted disaster. The foreign debt soon gobbled up all revenues from guano exports. Anxious to obtain income from nitrate beds in Tarapaca, Peru found it could not secure a good price in Europe without an arrangement with Bolivia.

In 1871, attempts were made in London to damage Peru's credit abroad. Detractors emphasized the decrease and potential disappearance of guano as an export commodity. Elections approached and Manuel Pardo was one of the candidates. Born in 1834, Pardo was a self-made millioonaire, a founder of the 1862 Banco del Peru and one of the major native guano merchants. (Gootenberg, 1993, p. 71)

On the 22nd of July, 1872, Colonel Tomas Gutierrez with his brothers, also military officers, staged a coup to prevent Manuel Pardo, the newly-elected President, from taking office. Then-president Balta was taken prisoner and subsequently assassinated in retribution for the death of one of the brothers (Williams, 1938, p. 591) The revolutionaries were captured, hung and buried in the public square and Mr. Pardo came to power. In his administrative period (he was president from 1872 to 1876), he had difficulties with Dreyfus and raised funds with the Societe General in Paris and with Raphael Raphael and Co. of London.

In 1873, he negotiated a secret treaty of alliance with Bolivia (Williams, 1938, p. 574). Peru passed laws limiting the nitrate production and established a monopoly. Henry Meiggs, who at that time had a great deal of influence in the country, sought to obtain control of certain mines previously promised to him by President Pardo.

In 1878 he was assassinated.

Resources
Gootenberg, Paul. 1993. Imagining development: economic ideas in Peru's "fictitious prosperity" of guano, 1840-1880. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California. 243 pp.

Williams, Mary Wilhelmine. 1938. The people and politics of Latin America. Boston: Ginn. 889 pp.

The Dreyfus Contract

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During this period, Piérola negotiated with the Dreyfus Company of France, a dominant guano trader. Mssrs Dreyfus and Co., headed by Auguste Dreyfus, advanced loans based on the extent of the guano deposits offshore. The Dreyfus Company's ambitions overshadowed those of other bondholders and its influence extended into the highest levels of the French aristocracy. On the 17th of August 1869, the Dreyfus contract was signed, but it wasn't until the 11 of November of 1870 that the contract was approved by Congress. This contract effectively shut out access to the guano trade formerly enjoyed by Peruvian merchants.

The money from the contract was to be used for the construction of railroads. Having not enough money to pay the contractors the government began to ask for advances from Dreyfus, securing these advances with the anticipated receipts from the guano trade. New docks were built on the coasts, as well as grand avenues and bridges in Lima. Dreyfus loaned 60 million soles. (Dobyns, 1976, p. 192) The loan from the Dreyfus Company gave them virtual monopoly of all guano exported until two million tons had been exported (Williams, 1938, p. 591)

Resources
Dobyns, Henry F. And Paul L. Doughty. 1976. Peru: a cultural history. New York, Oxford University. 336 pp.

Williams, Mary Wilhelmine. 1938. The people and politics of Latin America. Boston: Ginn. 889 pp.

Cerro de Pasco Mines

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Henry Meiggs viewed the completion of the Oroya Railroad and the future of the Cerro de Pasco mines as strongly interconnected. The Cerro de Pasco mines were located high in the Andes and the railroad would provide the means to transport the minerals (such as silver, gold, copper or zinc) down to Lima and even the port of Callao.

Meiggs proposed completion of the railway to Cerro de Pasco, using his own funds. In exchange he sought a grant to all the mineral lands in the area not currently exploited. An agreement was reached with the government on February 3, 1877.

Meiggs assigned William H. Cilley, formerly in charge of railway construction for the Oroya line, to begin the development of the mines. Work on both the railroad and the mines came to a standstill on the outbreak of war between Chile and Peru.

Resources:
Stewart, Watt. 1946. Henry Meiggs: Yankee Pizarro. Durham, N.C.: Duke University. 370 pp.

Charles R. Flint

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Charles R. Flint was born in Maine, and was early drawn to the sea by his father Benjamin Flint Chapman, a partner in a shipbuilding company. He eventually moved with his family to Brooklyn, New York where, after attending school, he sought work.

As secretary for Jose Antonio Garcia y Garcia, the Minister of Peru to the United States, he helped buy and fit out three transports and two monitors (later christened the Atahualpa and the Manco Capac) (Flint, 1923) Captain Gilchrest escorted the monitors on their trip from New York to Peru in the steamship, the Maranon, arriving after many long sea miles at Callao in the fall of 1869. (Clayton, 1985)

Charles soon met and joined the firm of W.R. Grace, making two long trips to South America in 1874 and 1876. Assessing the value of various trade goods such as lard, canned goods, crackers, brooms, tobacco and nails, he identified Great Britain as a principal competitor. Charles grew to have a 25% interest in the W.R. Grace Company. This was later increased to 35%.

By 1879 he was serving as the Chilean consul in New York, still a partner in W.R. Grace and Co. (Flint, 1923) So when war came, he found himself on both sides of the war.

Resources:
Clayton, Lawrence. 1985. Grace: W.R. Grace & Co. The formative years 1850-1930. Ottawa, Illinois: Jameson. 403 pp.

Flint, Charles R. 1923. Memories of an active life: men and ships and sealing wax. Putnam. 349 pp.

Casa Grace in Peru

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Another company with strong ties to the United States had a vested interest in the growing conflict between Bolivia, Peru, and Chile.The Grace Company was one of Meigg's chief sources for supplies for building the railroads. In the late 1800s, the Grace Company built a wide ranging trade with Peru, in paper, chemicals, and mining and dealt in consumer goods as kerosene, furniture, lumber, lard, fish, canned goods, crackers, textiles, billiard tables, and Singer sewing machines.

At 19 years old, William Russell Grace arrived in Peru in 1851 on the Louisa with his father and 180 other passengers. Seeking relief from the Irish potato famine, many of them had been brought from Ireland to be laborers on a sugar plantation. Soon after arrival, W.R. Grace found work as a clerk for John Bryce, a merchant in Callao.

Grace built a profitable business supplying goods to the guano fleet anchored off the Chincha Islands, 100 miles south of Callao. He stocked an old barge and lived aboard the vessel, thus providing the guano miners convenient access to needed items. In 1859, he married the daughter of Captain George Gilchrest.

Grace left Peru in 1860, settling in New York in 1865, where he later served two terms as Mayor of New York. He maintained his business interests in the western coast of South America. By then he had formed a partnership with Bryce called Bryce, Grace and Company. The company made transportation arrangements and secured ships, mainly between Peru and Europe.

The partnership between the families Bryce and Grace ended in 1876, to be replaced in Peru with the Grace Brothers Company, or Casa Grace. Michael Grace, his brother, handled company affairs in Peru, along with other agents, Charles R. Flint and W.R. Graces's nephew, Ned Eyre. W.R. Grace expanded his company's business into the ownership of Peruvian sugar plantations, as well as the shipping and distribution of nitrates in the United States. Grace Brothers transported 75 Chinese laborers from California to work in his grape and cotton plantations.

In New York, Grace set up an allied company, W.R. Grace and Company, from capital built during his short time in Peru. Some of his business clients included Henry Meiggs and the major French trader in guano, Dreyfus Brothers. Grace's company helped stock the Dreyfus ships before their trips to Europe.

In 1953, Peter Grace would describe his grandfather, William R. Grace, thusly:

"His was the business philosphy of optimism, and faith in fair dealings; of the
joy and satisfaction of constructive work; of courage in adversity and zest for
the game. It was the philosophy of business diversification, of constantly
thinking decades ahead, yet not hobbling foresight with mere dreaming; it was
belief in the men on his team and backing them to the hilt, with supreme
confidence that a job well done would win the day. He believed in
boundless industry but never to the point where work was not fun. He was
dedicated to practical Pan-Americanism. He firmly acknowledged his duty to serve
and love his God and Country." (Grace, 1953, p. 9)

Financing of the company moved from Peru to New York, in part due to the participation of the British firm, Baring Brothers. With the growth of railroads in the U.S., W. R. Grace was able to take advantage of shipping from either coast to build his supply routes to both coasts of Latin America.

As of 1953, the W.R. Grace company operated shipping services along South America's west coast, owned Peruvian textile mills, Chilean nitrate businesses, sugar plantations, and Brazilian rubber industries. His company continued to ship agricultural and electrical equipment to South America, and built a banking capability. W.R. Grace promoted the building of the Panama Canal, and was a close associate of key leaders in Peru and the United States. (Grace, 1953)

Resources:
Clayton, Lawrence. 1985. Grace: W.R. Grace & Co. The formative years 1850-1930. Ottawa, Illinois: Jameson. 403 pp.

Grace, J. Peter Jr. 1953. W. R. Grace (1932-1904) and the enterprises he created. New York, Newcomen Society, 1953. 28 pp.

Chinese Laborers in Peru

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The system of mining guano at that time required a large amount of hand labor. The laborers on the guano islands dug the guano, transported it in wheelbarrows to the cliffs. Later, the laborers took two days to load a ship. They passed the bags by canvas shoots into the hold. In the 1850s, the labor force needed to be doubled. Vessels waited in line up to two to three months to be loaded. (Mathew, 1981, p. 116-117)

A number of Chinese resided in Lima as early as 1613 and had become successful business owners. In 1849 the passage of the "Chinese law" encouraged traders to embark on an aggressive effort to bring Chinese laborers to Peru. Domingo Elias, a wealthy politician and guano entrepreneur brought over 79 Chinese laborers, and was subsidized 30 pesos for each of them by the government. Jose Canevaro, another guano merchant, brought over at least 3,650 Chinese.

Over the next 25 years, more than 100,000 Chinese were brought to Peru and of those who left China for Peru, 25 to 30 percent perished during the journey (Clayton, 1985, pg 29-30). The arrival of large numbers of Chinese as laborers caused concern over time in Peru, and became an issue in the coming conflict.

China stopped the coolie trade in 1875, so traders switched their attention to the shores of the western United States. There they arranged work contracts of three to five years. This contract was a 10 hour day, with Sunday off and 16 soles in silver. (Dobyns, 1976, pg 173)

Plantations along the coast, the railroad builders and the guano miners sought these Chinese laborers. The cheap labor of blacks and the Chinese helped generate the profits for foreign companies that had contracts in Peru, and allowed the creation of luxurious estates and frequent trips to Europe by the Peruvian elite. This helped build the business network with Europe and America, while stimulating a desire for technological advances.

Resources:
Clayton, Lawrence. 1985. Grace: W.R. Grace & Co. The formative years 1850-1930. Ottawa, Illinois: Jameson. 403 pp.

Dobyns, Henry F. and Paul L. Doughty. 1976. Peru: a cultural history. New York, Oxford University Press, 1976. 336 pp.

Mathew, W.M. 1981. The House of Gibbs and the Peruvian guano monopoly. London: Royal Historical Society. 281 pp.

The Oroya Railroad

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In 1870 Henry Meiggs began building the Oroya railroad, with the goal of linking the coastal cities of Lima and Callao with the high Andes and the silver mines of Cerro de Pasco. This railroad was an amazing feat of engineering. It climbed more than 14,000 feet in only 78 miles with multiple switchbacks, 65 tunnels and 61 bridges. The line was built in seven years by 8,000 to 10,000 Peruvians, Chileans, Bolivians, and Chinese, with the assistance of 600 mules.

The construction of the line reportedly cost Peru 7,000 workers through accident and disease. Landslides, falling boulders, premature explosions and altitude sickness caused considerable delays.(Werlich, 1978, pg. 94)

Starting from the sea, the Oroya ascended the narrow valley of the Rimac through sparse vegetation and masses of torn and twisted rock. The track rose 5,000 feet in the first 46 miles. At first the line climbed through banana groves and fields of sugar cane, with patches of corn and alfalfa. The view narrowed as one entered a valley, its slopes thickly terraced with ruins. There it stopped at Chosica, a sunny resort, before reaching Matucana. Following a winding pathway along the edge of precipices and over bridges, the track tunneled through the Andes at an altitude of 15,645 feet, the highest spot at that time in the world reached by a railroad. This photo taken near Matucana shows one of the steel bridges of the Central Railroad. The photograph courtesy of Håkan Svensson (Xauxa) Peru 1981 (Gnu Free Documentation License, Wikimedia).

Meiggs put William H. Cilley of New Hampshire in charge of the Lima and Oroya railroads. [A Cilley was engaged in 1865 by the Chileans to procure a gunmaker, an Englishman, with a view to founding and constructing guns and cannon. Is this the same person (Trigg, 2002)]

Resources:

Trigg, Angela. 2002. The Life of Daniel Trigg C.S.N. http://cssvirginia.org/vacsn4/original/td1909.htm

Werlich, David P. 1978. Peru: a short history. Carbondale, Ill., Southern Illinois University Press. 434 pp.

Nicholás de Piérola

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In May of 1868 a yellow fever epidemic took control of Lima. Many of the largest and most prosperous shops were closed due to the death of their owners and their employees. One wholesale house lost all fourteen of its clerks. In one case all members of an extended family of 25 people died in one house. Anyone who could was fleeing Lima. The steamers from Callao were laden with passengers. The American Minister took his family to Chile.

Also in 1868, Nicolás de Piérola left his job as a newspaperman to take charge of the treasury under then president Colonel José Balta. Piérola was born in the Department of Arequipa, the son of an eminent naturalist and minister of finance under General José Rufino Echenique, president of Peru in 1851. Of medium stature, straight posture and well-dressed, Nicolas had a ruddy complexion. He was an aristocrat in both conduct and gestures.

Piérola continued Peru's disastrous policy of borrowing heavily from foreign sources for large public works. This increased incentives for foreign governments to interfere in Peru's domestic policies. As President Balta's finance minister, Piérola's reorganization of the guano contract system helped finance the railroads. One goal of the railroads was to diversify its economy by improving access to resources previously out of reach. The newly built railroads provided needed transportation routes along the coast and would soon link the coast to the vast interior of Peru.

Henry Meiggs, Railroad Builder

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North American interests became tied in several ways to Peru during this period. In 1867 President Balta came to power in Peru. It is conjectured that protection of the polls was financed by Mr. Henry Meiggs, an engineer born in Catskill, New York, who later received valuable railroad-building contracts.

Known as a lover of music, Henry Meiggs followed the gold fever to California, and became a lumber dealer at a time when plank roads were being built. He left abruptly in 1854, sailing with his family to South America and leaving behind a million dollars in bad debts. Meiggs had previously been engaged by the country of Chile, and built the railroad from Valparaiso to Santiago. He built a large fortune, and an elegant residence, the whole of which reportedly was built in the United States and shipped to Chile. (Trigg, 2002)

In January of 1868 Henry Meiggs undertook the contract to build a railroad from Lima to Huancayo, made surveys for additional routes, and bid on the contracts to undertake construction of these routes. One of the Peruvian engineers, Federico Blume, who served on the commission to review these proposals said this of Meiggs:

"...Don Enrique Meiggs, who to loyalty in the fulfillment of his contractual obligations, unites familiarity with the management of great undertakings and commands an army of engineers, mechanics, special men for each kind of work, and countless laborers,who, at the raising of his finger, come running by thousands, when other contractors make vain efforts to secure a few hundreds."
(Stewart, 1946, p. 90)

Don Enrique rose early, tired rarely. He responded to questions promptly, clearly, and with a depth of knowledge. Nothing surprised or astonished him. He rarely drank alcohol and enjoyed the building projects he had acquired. He dwelt among "drafts and strips of paper" and spent his time perusing large "rolls of paper, covered with figures, signs, and lines." Notebooks littered his office and bedroom. For relaxation, he listened as members of his family played the piano. (Stewart, 1946, pg. 261)

Beginning in 1868 and for four years after that, Henry Meiggs advertised in the Chilean papers asking for laborers to help with the construction of railroads in Peru. An estimated twenty to thirty thousand Chileans took passage to Peru to work on the railroads. (Stewart, 1946, pg. 88)

He eventually acquired contracts to build railroads throughout Peru, contracts totaling $126,000,000. The funds for this enormous endeavor came from foreign loans. Many of the materials needed to build the railroads came from overseas, the rails from England and the ties from the United States. (Squier, 1877) In fact, Meiggs imported virtually everything that he used in constructing his railroads: blasting powder, medicines, clothing, rolling stock, tools, and lumber, mostly from the United States.

Meiggs made many alllies by giving everybody something to do. He employed potential revolutionaries,and sent one of them to the Grace Brothers to purchase a sailing ship, naming it the Don Enrique. (Flint, 1923).

In 1872, Henry Meiggs hosted the great naturalist, Louis Agassiz, on his travels in Peru. Meiggs took his guest on an excursion up the Rimac Valley on the Central Railroad on the occasion of the professor's birthday. The guest list included Major Williamson, the United States Consul to Peru, Commander Johnson and some of his staff of the U.S. surveying ship Hassler, a Dr. Jones of the U.S. Flagship Pensacola, and Commander Kennedy and his officers of the H.M.S. Reindeer. Professor Agassiz graciously told his host that because he had seen Henry Meiggs, "he had seen Peru." (Stewart, 1946, pg. 258)

By 1874, Peru was on the verge of bankruptcy. Revolutions and disturbances erupted due to the bad state of finances, and the ambitions of political caudillos and military chiefs. Payment on interest on bonds had ceased due to the bankruptcy of the government at the economic situation in Peru had become chaotic. Henry Meigg’s financial status began to disintegrate along with the economy of Peru.

A treaty between Chile, Peru, and Bolivia was to permit the export of nitrate from Antafogasta free of duty, but Bolivia and Peru made a secret alliance. With this secret alliance, the nitrate territory of Bolivia was ceded to Peru and was handed over to Henry Meiggs.

In July of 1877 Henry Meiggs attempted to get Peru to issue $15,000 in paper money in payment of the bonds held by him, so that he could continue to open the Cerro de Pasco mines, mines discovered by the Jesuits around 1635 and considered to be the richest and most extensive silver deposits in the world.

The Grace Brothers decision to limit credit to Meiggs strained their relationship. On September 30, 1877, Henry Meiggs died.

Resources:
Flint, Charles R. 1923. Memories of an active life: men and ships and sealing wax. Putnam. 349 pp.

Squier, Ephraim George. 1877. Peru: incidents of travel and exploration in the land of the Incas. (Reprint of the 1877 ed. New York: AMS Press. 1973) 599 pp.

Stewart, Watt. 1946. Henry Meiggs: Yankee Pizarro. Durham, N.C.: Duke University. 370 pp.

Trigg, Angela. 2002. The Life of Daniel Trigg C.S.N. http://cssvirginia.org/vacsn4/original/td1909.htm

The Guano War

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On the west coast of South Ameria, conflict would soon envelope Bolivia, Chile and Peru into the War of the Pacific, or the Guano War. Along the coastline of Peru and Chile are offshore islands where seabirds congregate: the Chincha Islands in the south, and the smaller islands, Guanajos and Lobos. The enormous fish reserves draw a large population of birds and sea lions to these islands. Millions of white-breasted cormorants, gray pelicans and white-headed gannet roost on just one of these islands. Guano is a combination of droppings, unhatched eggs, and decomposed bodies. The birds produce at least 11,000 tons of guano a year.

Due to the lack of rain, the droppings accumulate and are baked in the dry atmosphere, preserving the nitrates in the deposits. Over the centuries, guano grew into large deposits, often 100 to 140 feet deep. It became an important export commodity from 1840 to 1880, and was highly valued as fertilizer for improving crop yields.

Foreign traders, especially the British, set up trading houses to ship the guano back to England and Europe. At one point, the House of Gibbs had a monopoly on the guano trade, with much of the guano shipped to Great Britain. Guano comprised more than two/thirds of the total shipments to Britain in the late 1860s. The Americans also found guano valuable and passed the U.S. Guano Island Act of 1856 to assist American traders to acquire similar islands in the Pacific and the Caribbean. Since the British had monopoly over the Peruvian guano, American business interests in Peru stemmed not from the direct mining of the guano but from the transport of supplies.

Bolivia granted concessions to Chilean companies to explore and exploit other resources of Bolivia's coastal regions. Chilean companies found vast deposits of nitrate of soda and borax in 1866 and 1868, and a rich vein of silver ore in 1879. As a result, the Chileans developed a lucrative mining enterprise with the assistance of Great Britain. (Dobyns, 1976, p. 195) Not having direct access to guano, the Grace Company supplied American companies with nitrate of soda and continued to develop its interest in this area.

Manual Fuentes, Peruvian journalist and historian, compiled a statistical viewpoint of Lima produced in 1858. At that time Lima's population reached 55,000, with 5,000 inhabitants, one-fifth of the adult males, unemployed. Workers and artesans comprised about one/fifth of the population. Yet, foreign companies received contracts for city services, such as the paving of streets, importing both workers and the stones from Europe. More than half of the top merchants were European. Domestic production through factories was almost nonexistent, making it necessary to import almost everything. (Gootenberg, 1993, pp. 66-69)

A contemporary assessment contends that the Peruvian upper class of those days was more often a lawyer or a politician than a merchant. The merchants of Lima were often foreigners and the banks were also under foreign ownership. Foreigners controlled the development of agriculture and natural resources, the cultivation of sugarcane, the export of wool and hides, the mines, guano and the nitrate resources. They even participated in the funding of the troops, to some extent as a matter of self-protection.

Peru borrowed heavily from foreign investors on the strength of the guano exports. By the 1850s, Peru's emphasis on foreign loans moved it from last to first place as a borrower in the London markets. By the 1860s proceeds from guano exports provided more than 75 % of government revenue (Gootenberg, 1989, pg. 133). The government used some of these large sums of money to undertake large public projects. Guano exports also built personal fortunes, drawing all partners in this short-lived prosperity into the growing conflict over the control of the guano trade.

By 1875, sodium nitrate began to surpass the guano beds as an important resource. The guano beds were exhausted. (Clayton, 1999) The drop in the guano trade was largely due to the recession in Europe, over-supply and the growing demand for nitrate of soda. The 1870s showed a mass move of capital from guano to nitrate production.

W. M. Mathew (1981) offers another parallel explanation. As of 1858, British farmers began to switch the fertilizer for their turnip crops to superphosphates, as the price for guano escalated and the price for superphosphates remained stable. More easily obtained, superphosphates offered a better combination of nutrients for turnips and other root crops.

Faced with falling markets and in a difficult financial position, Peru attempted to establish more control over the exports. Bolivia also assessed additional fees on the Chilean concessionaires to compensate for the falling revenues. The Chileans protested that the new export duties were in violation of a previous treaty.

On the 15th of January of 1876, the Peruvian government declared the nitrate beds a government monopoly with a duty on private exportation so high it would force all lands into government ownership. Thus, three South American countries were drawn into a serious conflict over the right to mine in the Atacama desert region, an area never carefully delineated by national boundaries. English, American and other foreign interests were also at stake, with English interests aligned with those of Chile, and the United States with interests in both countries, and an antipathy towards England for their involvement in affairs in the western Hemisphere.

January of 1878 ushered in a period of peace and tranquility, which might have provided a hopeful future for Peru if it had not been hopelessly bankrupt. Bolivia in 1878 placed a tax of ten centavos on each hundredweight of nitrates. (Williams, 1938, p. 574-575.) Chile was outraged, calling this a violation of the treaty of 1874. Bolivia responded that failure to pay this tax by Chile would end in the confiscation of the Chilean factories and her exclusion from the industry.

Resources:
Clayton, Lawrence A. 1999. Peru and the United States: the Condor and the Eagle. Athens: University of Georgia Press.

Dobyns, Henry F. And Paul L. Doughty. 1976. Peru: a cultural history. New York, Oxford University Press. 336 pp.

Gootenberg, Paul. 1989. Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University. 234 pp.

Mathew, W.M. 1981. The House of Gibbs and the Peruvian guano monopoly. London: Royal Historical Society. 281 pp.

Williams, Mary Wilhelmine. 1938. The people and politics of Latin America. Boston: Ginn. 889 pp.

Captain Paul Boyton

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Paul Boyton was born June 29, 1849, probably in Ireland, although he later claimed to be born in the U.S. Even as a child, he loved the water and swimming. His father, Terence, was notably absent. A trader of curiosities, Terence imported sea-shells, corals, and oriental goods that he sold in major American cities. Paul had two brothers and three sisters. In 1858, they moved to Allegheny, Pennsylvania, on Lacock St. near the railroad bridge.

On April 15th 1864, at the age of 15, Paul joined the U.S. Navy. He was assigned to the U.S. steamer, Hydrangea, Captain W. Rogers in command. They were ordered to Fort Monroe, and spent that part of Civil War running up the James River past Malvern Hill where a confederate battery was stationed. His last engagement was the assault on Fort Fisher. He wrote that he was on board the ship-of-war St. Louis. He left the navy with the position of yeoman, possibly in 1865.

At some point he began submarine diving for the New York Wrecking Company and then went treasure hunting in the West Indies on the schooner Foam, for the purpose of collecting and shipping marine curiosities. He was wrecked in the Bay of Campeche near Tampico.

In 1867 he joined the Mexican revolutionaries under Pedro Martinez and Colonel Sawyer to fight Maximillian. After several skirmishes he deserted and returned to the United States.

In 1868, the family left Allegheny and his father helped him set up a store in Philadelphia for the sale of curiosities and Oriental goods and another at Cape May, New Jersey. In 1869 he lost everything to a fire. On October 5, 1870 his father died. Soon after his father died he left for France. When he returned from France to New York, his mother and elder brother had a store on Broadway near Thirteenth Street.

In Atlantic City, he helped organize the U.S. Lifesaving Service, where he claims to have saved 71 people.

From 1870 to 1871, Paul joined the free-shooters (Franc-tireurs) of the French Army and then sailed south to seek his fortune in the South African diamond fields.

In 1873 Paul Boyton started with his new dress-out, devised by C.S. Merriman of Iowa. It was a two-part suit made of vulcanized rubber, a tunic with a steel belt around the waist with pantaloons and boots. On each thigh and, breast, on the back of the head were inflatable pockets that could be blown up with a tube. He had a double paddle that could also be used as a sail. W.O. Carpenter was associated with Boyton in the original introduction of the suit (New York Times Obituary).

In a celebrated stunt in 1874, he leaped off a ship 40 miles off the coast of Ireland, and spent seven hours in the water before reaching the shore. He was thus enthralled by both the attention and notoriety that he achieved. Demonstrating the suit around the world now became a personal passion for him.

He leaped into the headlines on May 28th 1875 when he crossed the English Channel in 24 hours in his Merriman suit. The Annual Register in 1875 (A New Life Dress, pg. 17) mentions that Captain Boyton appeared with Lt. Morgan and Mr. Willis, all three in a “life dress”. Boyton took in tow with him an India-rubber canoe and a tin canister. The former contained rockets and signal lights; the latter had working tools, provisions, and cigars. They were two hours in the water.

In October of 1875, Paul Boyton floated the Rhine from Switzerland to Germany. In 1876, he floated the Mississippi River. In 1878 March 29 to 31st Boyton sailed down the Guadalquivir from San Geronimo (Morocco). In November, he paddled down the L’Orne.

Resources:

Boyton, Paul. The Story of Paul Boyton, Voyages on All the Great Rivers of the World
http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/9/2/3/19230/19230.htm