Paul Boyton and George Kiefer arrived late in the evening at Lurin. Peruvian troops guarded the town. The officers suspected Boyton of being a Chilean spy and arrested him. Though late at night, they forced Boyton to continue on towards Lima, leaving the rest of the mule train of passengers to pass the night in Lurin. Kiefer stayed behind to protect the baggage, with great concern for the fate of his travelling companion.
Just before dawn, the officers with their suspected agent, Paul Boyton, arrived at a hacienda just outside of Chorrillos, a summer resort on the coast south of Lima. Boyton refused to go on, so they rested there until daylight. Boyton was exhausted, but the relentless fleas only allowed him a brief rest. In the morning, possibly October 30, 1880, he and the officers boarded the train to Lima.
Resources:
Boyton, Paul. 1892. The story of Paul Boyton: voyages on all the great rivers of the world, paddling over twenty-five thousand miles in a rubber dress. Milwaukee: Riverside. 358 pp.
Paul Boyton Arrested as a Chilean Spy
Paul Boyton and George Kiefer Land in Peru
From the deck of the ship, Paul Boyton and George Kiefer got their first view of Callao, a town of 35,000. Lima, the Peruvian capital, lay just a short distance inland. Paul took mental notes of the Chilean ships blockading the harbor. The ship steamed passed the Chilean battleships to a port further south along the coastline. A passenger eyed Boyton suspiciously, asking him what he planned to do in Peru. Boyton thought he could be a spy and watched to see if he would signal one of the Chilean vessels. Kiefer later wrote that detectives hired by the Chilean government saw both he and Boyton in New York with the Peruvian agent, and that news of their arrival arrived with them on the same ship.
On October 27, the Peace Conference concluded with no agreement. Possibly the following day, the Columbia stopped for a night landing at Chilca. Kiefer and Boyton disembarked with five other passengers. A few miserable houses provided flea-bitten accommodations for the new arrivals. Needing to keep an eye on their luggage, Kiefer and Boyton slept fitfully.
The next day, they chartered a mule train heading north along the leafless coast to take them to Lima. Boyton found mules to be an uncomfortable mode of transportation. Hawks, vultures and condors circled overhead, waiting for any weak or fallen animal overcome by the heat. Water was scarce. Condors pecked out the eyes of fallen cattle and chased animals separated from the herd. Boyton's group found relief and water in a small village along the way.
Paul Boyton and George Kiefer off the Coast of Peru
On October 26, 1880 the Columbia stopped first at Paita and then Chimbote, just long enough to pick up mail. Chimbote was in the hands of the Chileans.
Further south, the Huascar returned from Valparaiso to Arica with two new 180 pound Armstrong guns and continued north.
For George Kiefer and Paul Boyton, the extensive barren coast of Peru, dissected occasionally by verdant river valleys, proved of great interest. We can imagine George sitting on the deck immersed in a book of travels about Peru, while Paul eagerly scanned the horizon and thought with anxious anticipation about the approaching adventure.
Parts of the coast received less than one inch of rain per year, and others went several years without rain. Cold ocean currents from the west created this severely dry climate, but also produced one of the richest fishery in the western hemisphere. (Moseley, 1992, p 102)
A dense fog obscured the coastline at times, so dense that tiny droplets formed making the air heavily moist, a condition locally known as garua. This fog nourished the lomas, areas on slopes and plains of the higher plateaus, and made possible short-lived verdure, providing food for cattle, sheep and goats.
Great ceremonial pyramids, now abandoned, lay hidden in the sands and in the upper river valleys. The ancient inhabitants fished the seas, planted in the valleys, and hunted herds of guanaco, wild camelids related to the llama and alpaca, that pastured on the fog plants. (Moseley, 1992, p. 41)
Resources:
Moseley, Michael E. 1996. The Incas and their ancestors: the archaeology of Peru. London, Thames and Hudson.272 pp.
U.S. Sponsored Arbitration at Arica Fails
At the same time that Paul Boyton and George Kiefer prepared to enter the conflict, the United States attempted to provide mediation. At the beginning of October, President Rutherford Hayes sent an offer of U.S. mediation to the belligerents. Chile accepted the offer but refused to cease hostilities while the mediation was attempted.
From the 16th of October to the 27th, U.S. government officials met with Bolivian, Peruvian, and Chilean officials aboard the U.S.S. Lackawanna at Arica Bay to try to end the war with diplomacy. Captain Aurelio Garcia y Garcia and Dr. Antonio Arenas represented Peru. The Chilean representatives were Eulogio Altamirano, Eusebio Lillo and Jose Francisco Vergara.
The U.S. Ministers Osborn, Christiancy and Adams attended. Christiancy said it was a serious breach of trust that the Chileans did not cease their attacks along the coastline while peace negotiations were being held. Osborne felt that they must stay neutral in this and let them resolve things on their own.
Chile wanted to annex Arica and the guano islands. They demanded the cession of Tarapaca, payment of a $20,000,000 war indemnity and the return of the Rimac. They insisted on the retention of Tacna. Peru refused to accept these terms, and the deliberations failed to reach a successful conclusion.
Paul Boyton and George Kiefer Leave Panama
The Columbia finally arrived in port. In his autobiography, Paul Boyton didn't provide details, but based on the stories of other travellers, we can imagine that:
Tenders and lighters lurched alongside the wharf tossed by the swell of waves. Boyton and Kiefer hustled their luggage on board in the utter confusion of a heavy downpour. They squeezed into a small hot cabin, not big enough for all the passengers, dodging the cargo that slid from side to side. They watched anxiously as their luggage was loaded, looking for serious onlookers, and then took shelter in their cabin until evening. Near dusk the sun finally came out, and they emerged from the cabin to purchase fruit from vendors that came alongside in small boats.
On October 24, in his autobiography, Paul reports that the Columbia arrived on the coast of Ecuador and steamed 60 miles upriver to Guayaquil. A multitude of parrots and parakeets circled overhead, and alligators rested on the banks among the mangrove trees. Quayaquil stood on the right bank, a hot and filthy town, fever flags flying from every third or fourth house. Rafts of balsawood clustered along the water's edge laden with pigs, fowls, parrots, macaws, bananas, platano, oranges, and pineapples.
The steamer remained in the middle of the river while lighters discharged the cargo. The slow unloading provided an opportunity for the passengers to explore the town. Paul and George went ashore. Crowds of young boys besieged them, offering monkeys for sale. They also offered what Boyton called alligators (probably caiman) from six inches to three feet long, strapped on boards to keep them from biting. Boyton compared them to American alligators and found them more agile and savage.
Research Note:
On October 25, the Wachusett, an American warship, arrived off Guayaquil on its way to Panama.
Resource:
Boyton, Paul. 1892. The story of Paul Boyton: voyages on all the great rivers of the world, paddling over twenty-five thousand miles in a rubber dress. Milwaukee: Riverside. 358 pp.
News: James Bond Stirs Up Chile-Bolivian Conflict
Andean Currents: James Bond and the War of the Pacific:
A new James Bond film set for release in November aggravated old wounds recently. Currently being filmed in the Chilean city of Antofagasta, in a region fought over during the War of the Pacific, the film plot calls for the overthrow of an existing regime. The filming requires Bolivian flags and Bolivian officials, angering the local citizens. Several dozen residents protested at the film site and the local paper read, 'Chile is Chile. We aren't Bolivian Indians. Imperialist British out.' Police arrested the mayor of a nearby town when he stormed the set in his vehicle.
News: Peru's Doe Run Smelter Fined for Toxic Emissions
Andean Currents: Peru's Doe Run smelter feels the heat:
Doe Run and La Oroya.... a connection between Missouri and the high Andes of Peru. A Missouri-based company, Doe Run, operating a smelter in the Andean La Oroya district of Peru, has had its environmental certification suspended by an independent auditor.
The mines in the Oroya area produce iron, zinc, copper, silver and gold, now in high demand with limited supply. Doe Run acquired the smelter to process these minerals in 1997. This article states that "La Oroya, the site of the smelter, repeatedly ranks on the Blacksmith Institute’s list of the top ten polluted places on the planet, sharing the dubious honor with places like Chernobyl, Ukraine." Last year the smelter repeatedly exceeded the maximum limit for toxic emissions.
Paul Boyton and George Kiefer Cross the Isthmus of Panama
On the 10th or 11th of October, 1880, Paul Boyton and George Kiefer boarded the steamship Crescent City and headed for Panama. They took with them a full array of rubber suits, torpedo cases and electrical appliances. Boyton was eager to talk with Nicolás de Piérola. He hoped to use a suitable launch that might already be available, while waiting for the special launch that had been ordered. A fellow traveller on the Crescent City, a relative of a woman clairvoyant, asked Paul to accompany him on an expedition to seek treasure on a distant island. [See Research Note]
On October 19th, Captain Porter brought the Crescent City into the harbor of Aspinwall, Panama in the afternoon. Newspapers reported that on board were S.W. Jackson, agent of the empresa Atlas de Vapores, E.L. Salmon, James and Frank Schuber, and Doctor W. C. Downs. No mention was made of Paul Boyton, for once at least required to maintain an inconspicuous profile. After crossing the isthmus, presumably by railroad, they arrived at Panama City.
With probable impatience, Paul and George waited two days at the coastal city for their ship, the Columbia, to arrive. Shallow rocky black reefs extended beyond the fortifications of the town. Steamers stood at anchor almost six miles away near an island.
A Chilean warship, the Amazonas, lay offshore, having arrived recently in Panama on the 17th of October. Boyton claimed that it was on the lookout for a torpedo launch being sent from New York to the Peruvian government. Boyton decided to board the warship with his press credentials. The Captain escorted him through the vessel and he took copious notes on its construction. As he was going over the side and back to shore, an English engineer on board approached him saying, "Your face seems familiar to me. Where have I seen you before?", to which Boyton responded, "I cannot possibly tell, as my work takes me all over the world." Boyton quickly left the boat.
Resource:
Boyton, Paul. 1892. The story of Paul Boyton: voyages on all the great rivers of the world, paddling over twenty-five thousand miles in a rubber dress. Milwaukee: Riverside. 358 pp.
Research Note:
I am tempted to wonder whether the clairvoyant mentioned here might have been Madame Blavatsky, although texts place her in India during this time period for about three years. I note, however, that she formed the Theosophical Society in 1875 in New York with Civil War colonel Henry S. Olcott, also a newspaper man, and the location of the society was at 443 W. 34th St., the same street upon which Paul Boyton and George Kiefer met with Guillermo Bogardus, so it is possible that she or Henry Olcott may have crossed paths with Paul Boyton at some time.
Large Torpedo Explodes at Callao
The New York Times (New York, N.Y.; Nov 16, 1880; pg. 1) reported that, on the 10th of October, 1880, the Peruvians placed a large torpedo holding three tons of powder in the harbor at Callao. Clockwork controlled the firing mechanism. At 9 o'clock in the morning, observers on the coast saw an immense volume of water shoot into the air. The ground shook. In Chorrillos, a house collapsed.
However, the target of the attack, the Chilean fleet, remained out of danger. In Iquique, where a portion of the fleet had returned, they heard that the Almirante Cochrane was sunk, but this was merely a rumor.
Paul Boyton and George Kiefer Head to Peru
In a letter to the dictator Nicolás de Piérola dated the 9th of October, Guillermo Bogardus wrote that Paul Boyton planned to depart on Monday , the 11th of October. He would be travelling as a correspondent of the New York Herald, under the name O. Delaport. (Yabar, 2001, pg. 559)
This letter corroborates, with the exception of smaller detail, Paul Boyton's own recollection of the events as told in the Story of Paul Boyton. Boyton was enthralled with the opportunity for new adventures and the possibility of big prize money. He and George Kiefer received press credentials from the New York Herald. Paul said his credentials identified him as Pablo Delaport, and he planned to sail on the 10th of October on the steamship, the Crescent City, boarding at New York City and heading to Aspinwall. Paul decided to keep his destination secret from his family. He told them he was sailing to Panama. (Boyton, 1892)
Resources:
Boyton, Paul. 1892. The story of Paul Boyton: voyages on all the great rivers of the world, paddling over twenty-five thousand miles in a rubber dress. Milwaukee: Riverside. 358 pp.
Yábar Acuña, Francisco. 2001. Las Fuerzas Sutiles y la defensa de costa durante la Guerra del Pacifico. Lima: Dirección de Intereses Marítimos. 650 pp.
Paul Boyton and George Kiefer Offered Contract
Near the end of September 1880, in a private home on 34th street, Paul Boyton, then 34 years of age, and his agent, George Kiefer, age 26, met with a stranger, who identified himself as Guillermo Bogardus. Bogardus told them that Nicolás de Piérola, now supreme chief in Peru, needed Boyton's help to break the blockade of the harbor at Callao. (Yábar, 2001, pg. 558)
Don Nicolás wanted them to bring their gear and torpedoes, including dresses, torpedo cases, and electrical appliances. In his autobiography, Boyton said that the agreement was to pay them 100,000 for the first Chilean boat destroyed, 125,000 for the second and 150,000 for the third. Don Nicolás wanted to destroy principally the Huascar, the Blanco Encalado and the Almirante Cochrane.
Naval officer Francisco Yábar, in his book Las Fuerzas Sutiles, describes a memorandum of agreement he discovered in the Piérola archives in Lima. The memorandum of agreement is between Daniel Raban and John Johnson for the purpose of using force to destroy boats. It is dated the 23rd of September, 1880, New York, with the name, Guillermo Bogardus, at the bottom. Yábar believes it is the contract made up for Paul Boyton and George Kiefer with the names obscured because of security reasons.
The contract has details of remuneration possibly relating to Boyton's mission: transports at 8,000 pounds, corvettes at 8,000, armor-plated ships of the first class such as the Huascar at 30,000 and armor-plated ships of the second class at 50,000. (Yábar, 2001, pg. 558) George Kiefer in a later letter to his niece told her that they were offered 100,000 for each ironclad, 60,000 for each corvette and 40,000 for each transport.
Bogardus gave money to Paul Boyton for his family's subsistence while he was in Peru. They also drew up a letter of credit with the House of Grace for 1000 soles per month for the families of both Paul and George Kiefer (Keifer) (Yábar, 2001, pg. 559).
Bogardus says that Paul wants to leave immediately for Peru, while Paul contends it is Bogardus that wants him to leave right away. Bogardus still sought a steam launch able to travel from Panama to Paita without having to refuel, and able to sustain an expedition up to ten days. Boyton needed such a vessel, capable of steaming up to and leaving him in his rubber suit near the enemy and, afterwards, capable of returning to pick him up out of the sea (Yábar, 2001, pg. 559)
Paul was promised a commission of captain in the torpedo service. Bogardus instructed him to go to Peru under an assumed name. Piérola expected him to arrive in November (Yábar, 2001, pg. 558)
Resources:
Boyton, Paul. 1892. The story of Paul Boyton: voyages on all the great rivers of the world, paddling over twenty-five thousand miles in a rubber dress. Milwaukee: Riverside. 358 pp.
Yábar Acuña, Francisco. 2001. Las Fuerzas Sutiles y la defensa de costa durante la Guerra del Pacifico. Lima: Dirección de Intereses Marítimos. 650 pp.
Current News: Vanishing Glaciers Threaten Water Supplies in Peru and Bolivia
ABC News: Vanishing Glaciers Threaten Livelihoods: Latin America's glaciers may melt within the next fifteen years, with Peru the hardest hit.
Loss of Andes glaciers threatens water supply - CNN.com: Boliva contibutes .03 percent of the worl's carbon dioxide emissions compared to the United States that contributes 25 percent. Bolivia's president, Evo Morales says that he may seek legal remedies against countries that contribute to the global warming.
Peru bets on desalination to ensure water supplies « WASH news Latin America and Caribbean: Peru is planning to desalinate water to make up for the lack of water if the glaciers disappear. The mines in th high Andes are going to start pumping water from the ocean for their operations.
Paul Boyton Approached by Peruvian Agent in New York
In Massachusetts, Paul Boyton paddled the entire length of Lake Quinsigamund near Worcester and and in September of 1880, he paddled the Narragansett from Rocky Point to Providence.
Boyton claims it was October, but it was possibly September, when a stranger approached him on Broadway in New York. According to Paul, the man tapped him on the shoulder saying "This is Captain Boyton I believe."
One wonders how much this recounting of the story was influenced by the phrase "Dr. Livingstone, I presume" engendered by the famous meeting of Dr. David Livingstone by Henry Morton Stanley on the shores of Lake Tanganyika in Africa. A New York Herald editorial dated the 10th of August 1872 used the phrase when describing that event. (Wikipedia article on David Livingstone)
The stranger went on to say "I have just returned from Europe where I was looking for you. I have a message for you from Don Nicolás de Piérola." He went on to explain that he was an agent of the Peruvian government, and wanted to speak with him in private. He cautioned Paul about Chilean spies that were in New York as well as elsewhere. He asked him to meet that evening at a nearby address.
Resources:
Boyton, Paul. 1892. The story of Paul Boyton: voyages on all the great rivers of the world, paddling over twenty-five thousand miles in a rubber dress. Milwaukee: Riverside. 358 pp.
News: Peru Demands Return of Machu Picchu Artifacts
In the News:
Peru Asks Yale To Return Artifacts -- Courant.com
In the early 20th century, Hiram Bingham, a Yale professor, journeyed to Peru and brought back to the United States a large number of artifacts from the fabulous ruins at Machu Picchu. While this is past the time period of this story, it is relevant in that it involves foreigners who came to Peru, made collections of artifacts, and took them away to other countries.
As I understand it, it was not until after the War of the Pacific that Peru made laws that applied to the export of antiquities. It has been said that these laws were a direct result of the transfer of collections to other parts of the world, although admittedly this may have been done to preserve the collections from the war zone.
I don't know the exact nature of the agreement between Peru and Yale, but supposedly the artifacts that Bingham took back to Yale were taken on loan. They were to be returned to Peru at some later point in time, which never occurred.
In 2005, Peru initiated a new request to have the artifacts returned. In September 2007, there was a memorandum of understanding drawn up, and a Yale archeologist, Richard Burger, inventoried the items, and designated which ones were of museum quality. Those that were of museum quality were to be included in an international exhibit, and eventually were to arrive back in Peru to be put into a museum.
With the inventory in progress, the full extent of the size of the collection became evident, amounting to perhaps 40,000 items. Peru is now asking for the return of the entire collection.
News: Chile Returns Books Taken from Peru During the War of the Pacific
During the war, the Chileans took valuable books that they found, especially during the occupancy of Lima, the capital, and sent the books back to Chile. It appears that close to 4,000 of these books are going to be returned to Peru. Peru plans to scan and digitize the books with the help of Spain and Japan, as part of a larger project, and will make them available for a fee.
Living in Peru » News » War of the Pacific books Chile returned to Peru to be scanned and digitized
Those of us who understand the power of free libraries wonder if it would be possible to make these books available without a fee. Is there another way in which they could recoup their expenses?
Colonel Lynch Releases Chinese Farm Workers
On September 14th, the Huascar headed to Valparaiso for repairs. The Blanco Encalada and Almirante Cochrane remained in front of Callao, surrounded by transports and torpedo launches. The blockade had been going on for five months now. Communication from Lima to the outside was difficult and mules carried the mail from Lima to a distant port. U.S. ships at Callao were the S. S. Lackawanna and the Wachusetts. The Adams left for Iquique (Panama Daily Star and Herald Sept 28, 1880).
Patricio Lynch arrived in Paita on the 19th of September. Mud and cane houses clustered along the narrow sandy beach at the edge of a pale gray ledge of rock. The harbor sheltered a variety of vessels, both European and native. Colonel Lynch disembarked his horse troops. He demanded a payment of 10,000 soles. When this was not paid, he ordered the destruction of the custom house, the train and the public buildings. They set fire to the custom house and train station, blew up a locomotive with dynamite, and cut the telegraph line. Lynch wanted to destroy the ability of Peru to raise funds for the war effort, and diminish the desire of the Peruvians to continue the war.
He continued his forays along the northern coast of Peru, attacking sugar cane and cotton plantations, several of them under foreign ownership, seriously threatening Peru's leading exports and livelihood at that time. Some Peruvian landowners transferred their property to foreign ownership to try to avoid the destruction of their investments. (Bonilla, 1978)
Lynch met little opposition. The civilian authorities frequently abandoned their posts on his approach, fleeing to the mountains.
When Colonel Lynch's troops ransacked the plantations, they freed 300 indentured Chinese farm workers from their quarters, reportedly living under wretched conditions. It is claimed that when Commander Lynch spoke to them in Cantonese, the Chinese workers passed from stupor to euphoria. To them, this officer in his red uniform was a liberator, and called him the "red prince". Allegedly, the Chinese shouted "Viva Chili", and helped burn the buildings before running off to continue the plunder begun by the invaders. The Chinese broke into the stores in town and showed the Chilean troops where equipment was hidden. (Bonilla, 1978)
To a Colonel Salmon, Colonel Lynch was claimed to have said (when demanding 140,000 in war reparations), "I must make you aware that following my Division are a phalange of more than 1,000 Chinese, that I cannot control and will sack any place after I leave."
Chorrillos was bombed on September 22 . On the 23rd the Blanco Encalado bombarded Chancay and Ancon. (Mason, 1885)
Resources:
Bonilla, Heraclillo. 1978. The War of the Pacific and the national and colonial problem in Peru. Past and Present.1978; 81: 92-118
Mason, Theodorus B. M. 1885. The War of the Pacific Coast of South America Between Chile and the Allied Republics of Peru and Bolivia. 1879-'81. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
The Lynch Expedition
On September 13th, 1880, the same day as the explosion that sunk the Covadonga, Colonel Patricio Lynch, a commander in the Chilean Navy, launched an expedition against the northern coast of Peru. Lynch served in his youth in the British Navy, and fought in the Opium wars in China. Americans, engaged by the Chileans for torpedo service against a Spanish blockade of Chile, met him in 1866 and described him a courteous man who spoke English perfectly. (Trigg, 2002)
In Chimbote, Lynch demanded a war indemnity. Pierola issued the declaration that any payment to Lynch would be considered an act of treason. The money not forthcoming, Lynch burned luxurious plantation homes, books, pianos, pictures, sugar estates machinery, and reportedly killed a flock of 500 sheep. In his rampages Lynch met almost no resistance by Peruvian military forces.
Resources:
Trigg, Angela. 2002. The Life of Daniel Trigg C.S.N.
The Covadonga is Sunk
In early September, the Chileans again bombarded Callao. On September 13th, 1880, while the Covadonga blockaded the small port of Chancay north of Callao, firing at the town with artillery, the Chileans saw an empty gig adrift. The crew of the Covadonga sent a boat to examine her. Having checked her thoroughly, they brought the gig alongside the Covadonga, and hooked her with tackles to hoist her in. As soon as a strain was brought on the after-tackle, the gig exploded. The blast blew in the side of the Covadonga.
The Covadonga sunk almost immediately. Apparently, the gig had been fitted with a false keel, packed with dynamite, and connected to an igniter, so that no explosion could take place unless an effort was made to hoist the boat. Twenty men, among them the Commandant, drowned or died as a result of the explosion; the rest reached land and were made prisoners. In retribution, the Chileans bombed the bays and neighboring ports of Callao, including Chorrillos, Chancay and Ancon. (Mason, 1885)
Resources:
Mason, Theodorus B. M. 1885. The War of the Pacific Coast of South America Between Chile and the Allied Republics of Peru and Bolivia. 1879-'81. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
1880 August
On August 18, Paul Boyton defeated George Fearn, the English swimming champion, in a race for a $1000 purse. Boyton swam 12 miles with his life-saving apparatus against Fearn's 10 miles. On August 21 in Atlantic City, New Jersey, Boyton allowed Fearn a half mile start. This time the English champion won.
1880 July
The third of July, a small coaster left the port of Callao and stole along the coast to the north. The armed transport, Loa, that had joined the blockading squadron after the fall of Arica, was sent in chase. Shortly afterwards three men were seen leaving the coaster in a small boat and landing through the surf.
The men of the Loa captured the vessel and found it loaded with fruit, vegetables, and poultry...a valuable prize to a blockading force. Bringing it alongside the Loa, they began to unload the captured items. In a few moments the boat exploded; the Loa sunk, her mastheads still above water when she reached the bottom.
It is supposed that the packet contained a large case of dynamite fitted with friction fuses, from which wires led to some of the packages of the cargo. In unloading, as intended, one of these packages was probably lifted and the torpedo exploded, blowing a large hole in the Loa's side and causing the loss of 145 officers and men out of a crew of 200.
In the middle of July, Nicolás de Piérola suspended the build up of defenses around Lima, because he believed that the Chileans would not march against the capital.
1880 June
On June 7th, the Chileans stormed Arica's fortifications. The Peruvians fought to the death, and among those lost were Francisco Bolognesi and Alfonso Ugarte.
In June or early July, 1880 several of a new torpedo, developed by the celebrated mathematician and inventor, Captain John Ericsson, were being shipped via Panama to Peru. (Panama Star Herald, Oct. 2, 1880)
Also in June, Paul Boyton paddled down the Delaware from Philadelphia to Ship John's light.
On June 28th in New York, W. R. Grace, his wife and two daughters boarded the ferry, the Sewanhaka, that carried passengers from Manhattan across Long Island Sound. While near Hell's Gate, passengers heard a rumble and saw a fire. Passengers cut off by the fire from escape jumped into the sea and drowned. Fifty people died. W. R. Grace helped calm passengers and helped them make their escape from the burning ship. The next day he emerged as a hero. The Democrats, looking for a strong candidate and successful businessman, asked him to run for Mayor of New York. (Grace, 1953) (Clayton, 1985)
Resources:
Clayton, Lawrence. 1985. Grace: W.R. Grace & Co. The formative years 1850-1930. Ottawa, Illinois: Jameson. 403 pp.
Grace, J. Peter Jr. 1953. W. R. Grace (1932-1904) and the enterprises he created. New York, Newcomen Society, 1953. 28 pp.
U.S. Minister Isaac P. Christiancy
Isaac Peckham Christiancy was born in Johnstown, New York in 1812. In 1836 he moved to Michigan where he studied law and entered politics. In 1872 he served as Chief Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court. In 1875, he began a term in Congress as a U.S. senator.
Newly arrived in Washington, he became involved with a young woman, Miss Lillie Lugenbeel, a a 20 year-old clerk in the Treasury Department. It is here that the story becomes difficult to follow. He claims he was forced to marry her to avoid a claim of "breach of promise", although he discouraged her because of the difference in their ages. There are stories that she left him the day after the marriage. He claims that the day after the wedding, she realized she was in love with someone else and wanted a divorce. To avoid further disgrace or according to other accounts, because of failing health, he took the position of U.S. Minister to Peru in 1879. Another report says that he took her to Peru to get her away from bad influences.
She however did not go to Peru with him, but came down at a later time reportedly at his request, taking passage on the same steamship as George Haight, one of the torpedo men. It was rumored that they struck up a romantic relationship on board ship which continued after their arrival in Peru. This caused considerable conflict between the couple and she returned to New York, where apparently she spread negative remarks about him that reached the U.S. newspapers, charges which included incompetency and habitual use of stimulants and narcotics.
A letter to I.P. Christiancy dated May 7th, 1880 attested to his professional demeanor in an effort to refute those charges and was signed , among others, by associates of Henry Meiggs, such as Charles S. Rand, William M. Bush, and William H. Cilley. (IP Christiancy papers) Its significance is that it helps to identify a fraction of the Americans in Peru at that time and, perhaps, the established alliances. A little more about these signatories:
Charles S. Rand served as a director of the Public Works and Development Company formed in March of 1874. The directorate included Henry Meiggs, president, and Francisco Garcia Calderon, vice president (Henry Meigg's lawyer and a pallbearer at his funeral). Charles S. Rand is also listed in Henry Meigg's will as one of those responsible to take over Henry Meigg's contracts.
William M. Bush was the chief clerk of Meigg's office in Lima and is also listed in Henry Meigg's will as a potential executor of Meigg's contracts.
William H. Cilley, a friend of Charles Flint and from New Hampshire, was in charge of the Oroya line beginning some time around the fall of 1871 and later worked on the development of the mines at Cerro de Pasco. He was a director of the Public Works and Development Company, and was a pallbearer at Meigg's funeral and listed in his will as one of those responsble for taking over Henry Meigg's contracts.
John L. Thorndike was born in New York in 1835. He built railroads in the U.S. and Canada, leaving for Chile in 1857 to help build the Santiago-Valparaiso Railway. He was on the directorate of the Public Works and Develpment Company and was a pallbearer at Henry Meigg's funeral. He surveyed and directed the building of the Arequipa-Puno line. He married a Peruvian, and remained in Lima, where he still lived in 1936. (Stewart, 1946, pg. 87)
Edward C. Dubois was a pallbearer at Henry Meigg's funeral and was later operator of the northern railroad.
Four possible signatories were Jorge Johnston, Cesar Rivero, Russell Keith, and Charles F. Davis who also appear to have attended the opening festivities for the Arequipa railroad line.
Resources:
Isaac Peckham Christiancy Papers. Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan.
Stewart, Watt. 1946. Henry Meiggs: Yankee Pizarro. Durham, N.C.: Duke University. 370 pp.
1880 May
On May 1, 1880, a serious explosion took place at the torpedo manufactory at Ancon. (Mason, 1885) On May 10, RearAdmiral Riveros ordered the bombardment of Callao. One of the "school ships" was sunk. It lasted four and a half hours.
The Chileans added two torpedo boats, fitted with outrigger torpedos, to their squadron, the Janequeo and the Fresia. They were armed with Hotchkiss machine guns. In addition three smaller boats, the Guacolda, Colo-colo and Tucapel were used to watch the harbor at night. (Markham, 1892)
On May 25th, a dark night, the Janequeo and the Guacaldo found themselves close to a Peruvian launch, the Independencia, commanded by Lieutenant José Gálvez, son of the late minister of war. Gálvez threw a hundred pound case of powder onto the deck of the Janequeo and exploded the powder by firing his revolver. [Other versions of the story say this was a torpedo.] The Janequeo sank. His boat sank also and Gálvez was taken prisoner with his men by the Chileans of the Guacaldo. The Peruvians also blew up a Chilean armed transport and the gun boat, Covadonga. (Markham, 1892).
Resources:
Markham, Clements R. 1892. A history of Peru. Reprinted 1968. New York: Greenwood, 556 p.
Mason, Theodorus B. M. 1885. The War of the Pacific Coast of South America Between Chile and the Allied Republics of Peru and Bolivia. 1879-'81. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
Peru Under Siege
The Dictator Nicolás de Piérola's actions and decisions under the pressure of the extended crisis drew strong reactions from his contemporaries. A member of the foreign diplomatic corps, the British minister Spenser St. John, claimed that Piérola passed the "principal portion of his day in preparing decrees at which the public smile". Pierola's manifestos were "bombastic and absurd". (Kiernan, 1955, pg. 26) He "devoted his attentions to the organization of a torpedo brigade, and to the contrivance of engines for the destruction of the blockaded ships". (Markham, 1892)
Many reports in regard to torpedoes had been circulated, and Chileans were continually on the watch for them. Permanent moorings with buoys were laid down off the end of the island San Lorenzo to which the blockaders rode during the daylight hours. They set out each night, leaving two small vessels to guard the moorings. Two torpedo-boats were kept on patrol in the bay at night and during foggy weather these often ran close to the mole and among the foreign men-of-war. The Peruvians placed torpedos in the harbor, but not far out in the bay. For this work, they used several regular torpedo-boats, as well as launches and small tugs fitted up for torpedo work or patrol duty. They were also provided with torpedoes of the Lay system. One of the Herreshoff boats was run into the mole and sunk. (Mason, 1885)
Resources:
Kiernan, V.G. “Foreign Interests in the War of the Pacific” IN the Hispanic American Historical Review, 1955.
Markham, Clements R. 1892. A history of Peru. Reprinted 1968. New York: Greenwood, 556 p.
Mason, Theodorus B. M. 1883. The War of the Pacific Coast of South America Between Chile and the Allied Republics of Peru and Bolivia. 1879-'81. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
Peru Responds to the Blockade
The batteries defending the port were in fair condition and were made ready. The Union and the ironclad monitor, Atahualpa, were brought in under the protection of the guns, and the transports were placed behind the Muelle Darsena. Nicolás de Piérola came down from Lima to survey the defenses, and found that the Prefect of Callao, Colonel Saavedra, had everything in order. (Brooklyn Eagle, May 4, 1880)
Piérola opened all the smaller ports between Casma and Pisco to foreign commerce. The blockade created problems for the neutrals engaged in commerce along the west coast. At a later date the neutral governments would demand accountability for damages sustained as a result of the hostilities.
On April 22nd, Rear Admiral Riveros ordered the bombardment of the wharf and the Union. It lasted two and a half hours. Callao and the vessels in the harbor would be subjected to intermittent bombardments over the next few months. The Peruvian fleet had been relocated under the protection of the Muelle Darsen. The shots fired often fell short but sometimes they struck a vessel or went over them, occasionally striking a building in town.
By the end of April, Piérola began concentrating troops and munitions around Lima. He used British ships to bring the troops from the north. Since they were transported without uniforms or arms, the English company felt that they hadn't violated neutrality. Piérola ordered all men from 16 to 60 to prepare for battle, forming the local army of Lima. (Bernasconi, 1946)
Resources:
Bernasconi, Edmundo H. Civati. 1946. Guerra del Pacfico (1879-1883). Toma II. Volumen 330. Biblioteca del Oficial. Buenos Aires Circulo Militar.
The Blockade of Callao
On April 9, 1880 a Chilean squadron, under the command of Rear-Admiral Riveros, consisting of the Blanco Encalada, the previously captured Huascar, the wooden corvettes, the Angamos and Pilcomayo, the transport Mathias Cousino, and the torpedo-boats Guacolda and Janequeo, steamed towards Callao. At 3 p.m. the torpedo-boats, convoyed by the Huascar, were pushed ahead. The Guacolda, commanded by Lieutenant Goni, broke down and became separated from her convoy.
The Guacolda met the fleet at about 8 p. m., and was repaired and again pushed ahead alone, arriving off San Lorenzo Island at 1 a. m. After waiting for the Janequeo (which it afterwards learned had missed the port by about ten miles to the northward) for about an hour, Goni ran in toward the vessels. Approaching the usual man-of-war anchorage from the south, he identified the neutral men-of-war. Shortly afterwards, in the dark, he ran into and sank a fishing-boat, from which his crew pulled three men. The Chileans forced the men to point out the position of the Peruvian corvette, the Union, which, with the Atahualpa, Chalaco, and Oroya, were at anchor outside of the Muelle D'Arsena.
At daylight on April 10, the Chilean fleet sent a torpedo launch against the Union. The captain of the Union had surrounded his vessel with a strong torpedo-boom. When Goni collided with the fishing boat, one of his bow-spars was carried away. When he attacked the Union', his torpedo exploded harmlessly against the floating palisade. Before exploding, the torpedo ran dangerously close to the United States steamer Alaska and the Italian frigate Garibaldi. The Union's crew returned a heavy small-arm and machine gun fire, firing with the ship's Gatling guns. The Guacolda promptly retired. (Mason, 1883, pg 56-57)
The Blanco Encalada appeared off Callao. At 10 am a launch was sent off from the Blanco with a flag of truce and was received by a boat from the Union. The Chileans announced the blockade. All neutral ships were given eight days to depart from the port. The Diplomatic corps in Lima requested that the time be extended to fifteen days.
Resources
Mason, Theodorus B. M. 1883. The War of the Pacific Coast of South America Between Chile and the Allied Republics of Peru and Bolivia. 1879-'81. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
The Campbell Brothers
James and William Campbell, both from Paul Boyton's former hometown, Allegheny City, worked for the M.A. and Panama Company, a railroad company in Peru. William wrote to his father from Arequipa (published in the New York Times May 10, 1880) that on March 7, 16,000 Chileans attacked Mollendo in Peru. James ran all the movable engines and machinery to a place of safety and buried the rest. The two brothers were captured and made an escape.
James was recaptured and refused to tell them where the machinery was buried. The Chileans tied him to a horse and forced him to walk 13 miles through the sands under the burning sun. They refused to give him water and threatened to shoot him. James was put into jail in Ansenia, where he was tried and sentenced to death. The Chileans burned or dynamited all the machinery and stores that they could find.
On August 18, the New York Times reported the two sons of Felix Campbell of Allegheny city were still captive. Mr. Campbell made application to Secretary Evarts, asking for his interference.
W.R. Grace Continues Shipping Munitions
With the assumption of the Peruvian presidency by Nicolás de Piérola, W. R. Grace & Co. continued to act as a purchasing agent of munitions but W. R. Grace withdrew from active involvement. Charles Flint corresponded with John Ericsson regarding his torpedo designs.
In 1861 John Ericsson built the Monitor that fought the Confederate Merrimac during the Civil War. Ericcson worked previously with the Peruvians in May of 1862, when he was asked to build two boats similar to the Monitor. (Yábar, 2001, pg. 410) Ericsson also invented two other innovative weapons, one a torpedo cannon that could fire projectiles and also the Destroyer, a boat with a cannon mounted in its prow.
Flint and Ericsson tested dummy projectiles on the North River. Gullermo Bogardus, the agent for Peru, and Flint inspected the original Destroyer then in the port of New York and negotiated the purchase and a delivery date. It is possible that Peru succeeded in acquiring the torpedo cannon, but there is no indication that they were able to acquire the Destroyer. (Yábar, 2001, 411-413)
Realizing that the ports of Peru would be blockaded by Chile, the Grace firm shipped a cartridge factory to Peru which began turning out cartridges soon after its arrival.
Resources:
Yábar Acuña, Francisco. 2001. Las Fuerzas Sutiles y la defensa de costa durante la Guerra del Pacifico. Lima: Dirección de Intereses Marítimos. 650 pp.
President Prado Leaves for Europe
By the close of 1879, Chileans controlled the Atacama region and the Peruvian provinces of Tarapaca, Tacna, and Arica. They embarked on a strategy of bombing Peruvian coastal towns. (Williams, 1938, p. 575)
By December 15, Peru had purchased 12 Krupp cannons and six Nordenfeldt machine guns (Revoredo, 2001, pg. 87) General Prado returned to Lima where he met with all political parties, including Don Nicolás de Piérola. Prado walked to his home accompanied by a large entourage. On the 18th he set sail for Europe, with the aim of raising funds and obtaining ships and supplies for the war effort. Some viewed his action as having abandoned the country in a time of war. On the 21st his vice president General Luis La Puerta, who had assumed command, was deposed and on the 23rd, Nicolás de Piérola assumed the presidency by coup.
General Prado arrived in New York on January 6, 1880 on his way to Europe. On his arrival, he received a cable regarding the overthrow of his government.
Resources:
Revoredo, Daniel Parodi. 2001. La Laguna de los Villanos: Bolivia, Arequipa y Lizardo Montero en la Guerra del Pacifico (1881-1883) San Miguel, Peru: Pontificia Universidad/IFEA.
Williams, Mary Wilhelmine. 1938. The people and politics of Latin America. Boston: Ginn. 889 pp.
Paul Boyton in New England
On October 30, 1879, Paul Boyton shot Bellows Falls on the Connecticut River in his rubber suit. He completed the descent of the Connecticut River from Canada to Long Island Sound, arriving at Saybrook light on November 7th.
In a testimonial dated December 30th, 1879 (an advertisement for Wei De Meyer's Catarrh Cure), Paul Boyton claimed that while swimming the Connecticut River, he contracted a dangerous cold and this Catarrh Cure accomplished all that was claimed for it. In fact, it completely cured his agent, Mr. George P. Kiefer, of a terrible catarrh from which he had suffered for a long time. So Paul asserted that he would always include this valuable remedy in his outfit. (Brooklyn Eagle, January 17, 1880, pg. 4) Several sources published between 1882 and 1910 identify the ingredient in this cure to be bicarbonate of soda.
Nicolás de Piérola Gains Support
The loss of the Huascar moved popular opinion against then President Mariano Ignacio Prado and built support for Nicolás de Piérola. The government offered Piérola a place in a reorganized administration. Many wealthy and influential citizens in Lima supported him. Prado was unpopular and was thought to be soon deposed.
The experienced officers were in the south, which left Lima vulnerable. Piérola resigned the position offered him because he could not name his colleagues. He later claimed that he felt that the war should have been avoided at all costs, that it would be an "injury of both Peru and Chili." (New York Times, September 25, 1885).
Peru Loses Admiral Grau and the Huascar
When the war broke out, Admiral Miguel Grau was serving in Congress, but immediately resigned and took command of the Peruvian ship, the Huascar. He donated all the prize-money due him from various captures of enemy fleet ships to the fund for carrying on the war.
From May to October the Peruvian ship the Huascar prevented the completion of the Chilean plan of battle. The men of the Huascar prevented the Chileans from landing in Peruvian territory (Lopez,1930). The Huascar and the Independence fought as a division.The Pilcomayo and the Union formed the other division, commanded by Aurelio Garcia y Garcia.
The Huascar sailed south, although in poor condition with a foul bottom and boilers that needed repair. It broke blockades, chased and ambushed the Chilean fleet. On October 8, 1879, the Chilean ironclad, Almirante Cochrane, and her sister ship, the Blanco Encalada, approached the Huascar. At 8:30 am Miguel Grau ordered the engineer, Samuel MacMahon, to increase the speed three or four revolutions. Having done this, MacMahon went up to survey the position of the enemy ships. The Cochrane was gaining on them, so he went down to increase the steam up to 25 to 30 pounds of pressure.
At Angamos Point the ship was surrounded by the entire Chilean fleet. Admiral Grau was killed and the Huascar was captured by the Chileans. MacMahon was given the order by the fourth officer then in command to open the valves and sink the monitor. But before this action could be completed, the ship was boarded. The Chileans took MacMahon prisoner and put a revolver to his chest, ordering him to close the condenser valve and the main site where the water was entering. Pumps were started, and the fires were extinguished.
Of 200 crew members, 28 died. The Chileans took the rest of the sailors prisoner, along with 48 wounded.The cook, Edward Ford, from the U.S. was gravely wounded. Among the prisoners were 33 English, eight Germans, one Norwegian, three French, one Dane and one U.S. citizen. With the capture of the Huascar, the Chileans dealt a serious blow against Peru. Peru subsequently lost any real ability to defend themselves or conduct the war from the sea.
On October 26, 1879, an 8,000-man Chilean expedition headed north. By November 2 they disembarked at Pisagua, and obtained a beachhead. The Peruvian and Bolivian forces retreated as the invaders marched forward.
Resources:
Lopez, Jacinto. 1930. Historia de la Guerra del Guano y el Salitre o Guerra del Pacifico entre Chile, Bolivia y El Peru. New York: De Laisne & Rossboro.
1879 September
On September 3rd, Consul Marquez informed the Peruvian government that another Herreshoff torpedo boat acquired through the Grace company had arrived in Panama, coming from New York. He was worried that the authorities would confiscate the cargo. The government sent the Oroya to bring the munitions to Peru. (Yábar, 2001, p. 129)
On the 10th another Herreshoff torpedo of the the same type, completely armed and 70 feet in length arrived from the same source. Also reportedly arriving at approximately the same time were six Krupp cannons destined for Bolivia, three million rifle and machine gun munitions, 4500 rifles, 2 Nordefield machine guns and 40 conical steel shot for the squadron. The Oroya went to Panama to receive this cargo, entered directly to the port and loaded the armaments in Taboga. The Chileans objected strongly, but by the 23rd of September, the Oroya, with its cargo, departed from Panama headed towards Callao. (Yábar, 2001, p. 129)
Marquez expected a yacht torpedo and two more launches to arrive by the beginning of October, sent from New York by Canevaro, Vice President of the Republic. A torpedo launch arrived on the Ailza. Three naval officials went to Panama to await its arrival. The chief M. De la Barrera observed that it lacked navigation equipment and machinery. They believed that after it was tested in Europe, it was poorly attended. Rust had formed in all the parts that were not copper or bronze. Pistons, cylinders and condensers were rusted shut. It is possibly this launch that was captured by the Amazonas in Ballenita, a port in Ecuador.
Resources
Yábar Acuña, Francisco. 2001. Las Fuerzas Sutiles y la defensa de costa durante la Guerra del Pacifico. Lima: Dirección de Intereses Marítimos. 650 pp.
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